PATRIARCHY AND SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR

Meaning and Origin of Patriarchy

Patriarchy literally means rule of the father and refers to a social system where men hold authority over women in family, economy, religion, and politics. The term originated in nineteenth-century anthropology to describe kinship systems where authority rested with the eldest male. Over time, it came to denote a broader system of male dominance in society. Patriarchy is not limited to family relations but extends to economic structures, cultural norms, religious practices, and political institutions that reinforce male superiority and female subordination.

The early anthropologists speculated that primitive societies may have been matriarchal, but there is no clear evidence of such societies. However, the debate helped scholars understand that gender relations have evolved historically and are shaped by social and economic conditions. Patriarchy therefore is not natural or biological but a social and historical construction.

 

Friedrich Engels and Historical Origin of Patriarchy

Friedrich Engels was the first scholar to use patriarchy in the sense of male domination over women. In The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, he argued that early societies were relatively egalitarian, with simple division of labour between men and women. With the development of private property, agriculture, and surplus production, men began to control property and inheritance.

Engels called this transformation the “world historic defeat of the female sex.” According to him, patriarchy emerged when men wanted to ensure that property was inherited by their biological sons. This led to the control of women’s sexuality and confinement of women within the family. Women became economically dependent on men and lost their earlier social status. Engels thus linked patriarchy to economic structures and private property.

 

Gerda Lerner and Creation of Patriarchy

Gerda Lerner, in The Creation of Patriarchy, provided a historical explanation of patriarchy based on ancient Mesopotamian civilizations. She argued that patriarchy developed gradually through social and economic changes such as agriculture, warfare, and slavery. According to Lerner, women were captured during wars and treated as property and slaves, making them one of the earliest forms of private property.

She disagreed with Engels and argued that control over women came before private property, not after it. Women’s reproductive capacity became valuable for producing labour, and men sought to control it. Over time, patriarchal systems became institutionalized through laws, religion, and social norms. Lerner emphasized that patriarchy was a historical process and not universal in the same form across societies.

 

Uma Chakravarti and Brahmanical Patriarchy

Uma Chakravarti introduced the concept of Brahmanical patriarchy to explain patriarchy in the Indian context. She argued that patriarchy in India is closely linked with caste and class hierarchy. Ancient texts like Manusmriti and Dharmashastras prescribed strict control over women’s sexuality and behaviour to maintain caste purity.

According to Chakravarti, upper caste women were strictly controlled to preserve caste boundaries, while lower caste women were exploited economically and sexually. Thus, patriarchy operates differently across castes. Upper caste women faced severe restrictions like seclusion and widow oppression, while lower caste women faced economic exploitation and sexual violence. This graded inequality created multiple forms of patriarchy in Indian society.

 

Capitalist Patriarchy – Zillah Eisenstein

Zillah Eisenstein introduced the idea of capitalist patriarchy, which explains the combined impact of capitalism and patriarchy on women. She argued that women are exploited both in the household and in the workplace. In capitalism, workers are exploited by capitalists, but women face an additional layer of exploitation due to patriarchal relations in the family.

Women perform unpaid domestic labour such as cooking, cleaning, and child care, which supports the capitalist economy by reproducing labour. At the same time, women in paid work are confined to low-paying and low-status jobs. This dual exploitation is known as double burden or double shift.

 

SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR

Sexual division of labour refers to the allocation of work based on gender, where men and women perform different types of work. Men are generally assigned productive and public work, while women are assigned reproductive and domestic work. This division is justified on biological grounds but is actually socially constructed.

The sexual division of labour reinforces patriarchy by limiting women’s economic independence and keeping them confined to household responsibilities. It creates inequality in wages, employment opportunities, and social status.

 

Patriarchal Mode of Production

In patriarchal societies, women’s domestic labour is not recognized as economic work. Women cook, clean, take care of children, and maintain households, but this labour is unpaid. Men and family members benefit from women’s labour while women remain economically dependent.

This system is known as patriarchal mode of production, where women’s labour is appropriated by men in exchange for maintenance and protection. It creates economic inequality and limits women’s autonomy.

 

Patriarchal Relations in Paid Work

In the labour market, women are often confined to low-paying and less skilled jobs such as teaching, nursing, and domestic work. These jobs are considered suitable for women because of stereotypes about their caring and nurturing nature.

Women receive lower wages than men and have limited opportunities for promotion. This occupational segregation reinforces gender inequality and maintains male dominance in economic structures.

 

Biological Determinism and Gender Construction

Scholars like Anne Fausto-Sterling argued that biological differences between men and women are often exaggerated to justify social inequality. Science itself is influenced by social ideas about gender.

For example, the belief that women are physically weak or emotionally unstable is used to exclude them from leadership and technical roles. Thus, biological differences are socially interpreted to maintain patriarchal structures.

 

Son Preference and Gender Inequality

In many societies, especially in India, families prefer male children because they are expected to support parents in old age and continue the family lineage. Female children are often seen as economic burdens due to dowry and marriage expenses.

This leads to discrimination against girls in nutrition, healthcare, and education. As a result, female infant mortality is higher in some regions despite biological advantages. Son preference reflects deep-rooted patriarchal values.

 

 

Female Headed Households

In rural and tribal societies, women sometimes become heads of households due to male migration, widowhood, or abandonment. These are known as female-headed households.

Women in such households take responsibility for agriculture, income generation, and family care. While this increases their economic role, they still face social and institutional barriers. Among tribal communities like Kolams, female-headed households are more accepted, showing variations in patriarchy across societies.

 

Double Burden

Women who work outside the home are expected to perform both paid work and domestic work, leading to double burden. In many cases, women also participate in community and social activities, creating a triple burden.

This increases physical and emotional stress and reduces women’s opportunities for career advancement. Feminists argue that unpaid domestic labour must be recognized as productive work.

 

Feminization of Labour

Globalization and industrialization have led to the feminization of labour, where more women are entering low-paid and insecure jobs. Women are preferred in industries because they are seen as obedient and cheap labour.

This creates economic exploitation and reinforces gender inequality in the global labour market.

 

Glass Ceiling

Women face invisible barriers in reaching higher positions in organizations, known as the glass ceiling. Despite qualifications and experience, women are underrepresented in leadership roles.

Patriarchal attitudes and workplace discrimination limit women’s career growth.

Wage Gap

Gender wage gap refers to the difference in wages between men and women for similar work. Women are often paid less due to stereotypes and discrimination.

This economic inequality reinforces women’s dependency and reduces their social status.

 

Domestic Violence and Control

Patriarchy often involves control over women through violence and coercion. Domestic violence, marital rape, and emotional abuse are tools used to maintain male dominance.

Such practices restrict women’s freedom and reinforce gender hierarchy.

 

Reproductive Control

Patriarchy controls women’s reproductive rights through restrictions on abortion, contraception, and family planning. Women’s bodies become sites of social and cultural control.

This limits women’s autonomy over their own lives.

 

 Cultural and Religious Justification

Religion and cultural traditions often justify patriarchy by promoting male authority and female obedience. Texts, rituals, and customs reinforce gender roles.

These cultural norms make patriarchy appear natural and legitimate.

 

Intersectionality

Patriarchy interacts with caste, class, religion, and region to create different forms of oppression. Upper caste women face restrictions, while lower caste women face economic and sexual exploitation.

This shows that patriarchy is not uniform but varies across social groups.

 

Patriarchy and sexual division of labour are deeply embedded in social structures and institutions. From Engels to Gerda Lerner and Uma Chakravarti, scholars have shown that patriarchy is historically constructed and shaped by economic, social, and cultural factors. Sexual division of labour reinforces male dominance by limiting women’s economic and social opportunities. In modern society, capitalism, globalization, and cultural norms continue to sustain patriarchal relations, making gender equality a major sociological challenge.