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Philosophies, Terms, Phrases & Contronyms

The word ‘philosophy’ comes from the Greek words ‘Philo’ (love) and ‘Sophia’ (wisdom) and so is defined as “the love of wisdom” The simplest definition of philosophy is that it is a discipline that studies knowledge, nature, truth, and human existence and tries to come up with some solutions to some ‘larger than life’ questions. Philosophical schools frequently develop in response to some perceived failure of religion to provide answers to fundamental questions.

Aestheticism is the belief that beauty is the basic principle of chief good in life and underlies morality.

Antinomianism is the rejection of conventional morality; a doctrine rejecting moral law on the ground that salvation derives from grace or faith alone.

Behaviourism doctrine that behaviour, rather than mind or consciousness, is all that can be known or studied about human nature.

Determinism doctrine that every event happens according to physical laws, is casually determined and is independent of human will.

Empiricism is the doctrine that knowledge can only be gained through sense perception and experience.

Epistemology ancient Greek teaching that good was pleasure and evil was pain.

Epistemology study of the nature and origin of knowledge.

Ethics philosophy of morals and moral choices.

Existentialism philosophy doctrine that man has complete free will but no given essence, and has to define himself by his choices in a world without ultimate moral values.

Fabianism political doctrine favouring gradual, non-confrontational social progress change.

Fatalism doctrine that everything is predestined, as by fate, and that human will and action are powerless to affect events.

Hedonism believes that pleasure is the basic principle of chief good in life, and underlies morality or determines one’s actions.

Historicism doctrine that history is governed by inevitable processes; the theory that a past age should be judged on its terms rather than by modern values.

Humanism believes that the basic principle of morality is the well-being of man and in this life rather than the next.

Idealism belief that the true reality lies beyond the observable world; the theory that consciousness or reason is the true reality. Or the only thing knowable.

Instrumentalism doctrine that the value of ideas lies not in their correctness but in their practical success.

Jurisprudence philosophy of law.

Logical positivism doctrine that the only meaningful statements are either self-evident or scientifically confirmable and that statements about unobservable things such as God or mental stats are therefore meaningless.

Materialism doctrine that physical matter is the basic reality that thoughts and emotions are simply results of it, and that religious and supernatural beliefs are baseless; a doctrine that history and social and economic changes have mechanical material causes.

Metaphysics study of underlying principles and ultimate reality.

Millenarianism believes in a perfect future period or society.

Nihilism doctrine that denies the existence of everything; political theory or movement based on the rejection of all authority or any curtailment of individual freedom.

Nominalism doctrine that only actual individual objects exist, and that essences, universals or abstract concepts exist only as names.

Ontology study of the nature of being or existence.

Perspectivism doctrine that there can be no absolute knowledge of truth since rival conceptual systems produce different views; a theory that several points of view are needed to understand reality.

Phenomenalism doctrine that knowledge consists of or is derived from facts and that religious or supernatural beliefs are not true knowledge.

Pragmatism practical approach to political or personal dealings, rejecting ideological and historical considerations.

Prescriptivism theory that statements about good and evil cannot be either true or untrue, but simply reflect and prescribe moral attitudes.

Rationalism doctrine that knowledge can only be gained through reason: the rejection of religion because it is contrary to reason.

Reductionism analysis of a subject or problem into its components, often by over-simplifying it.

Relativism doctrine that truth is not absolute, but varies from individual to individual, culture or culture, and age to age.

Scholasticism is medieval Christian philosophy and theology associated with the church Fathers, sometimes influenced by Aristotle.

Solipsism belief that the self is the only thing in existence, or the only thing knowable for certain.

Stoicism ancient doctrine that man’s only worthwhile aim is a virtue and that this involves submitting to nature and suppressing one’s emotions.

Structuralism theory or movement in many academic fields is based on the view that the subject has various underlying structures, contrasts and assumptions; the study of the structure rather than the history of a language.

Syndicalism revolutionary movement or theory supporting the government through trade unions or workers’ syndicates, to be achieved by radical industrial action.

Transcendentalism doctrine that the ultimate reality is in a realm beyond everyday experience; a doctrine that knowledge is obtained by intuition or by reflecting on the reasoning process itself.

Utilitarianism doctrine that the greatest good is what produces the most happiness for the greatest number of people.

American English terms

Billfold	Wallet
Bobby	Hairgrip
Collect call	Reverse-charge call
Cotton candy/spun sugar	Candy floss
Decal/ decalcomania	Transfer, transferable picture or design
Derby	Bowler hat
Diaper	Nappy
Drapes	Curtains
Druggist	Chemist, pharmacist
Faucet	Tap
Fender	Wing of a car
Flashlight	Battery-operated torch
Furlough	Leave of absence, as from military duty
Hood	Bonnet (of a car)
Hope chest	Bottom drawer, trunk for a trousseau
Instalment plan	Hire purchase
Intern	Junior hospital doctor, houseman
Kerosene	Paraffin
Longshoreman	Docker, dockworker
Mortician	Undertaker, funeral director
Muffler	Car silencer
Mutual fund	Unit trust
Odometer	Mileometer
Pacifier	Baby’s dummy
Pari-mutuel	Totalizator, the tote betting system
Podiatrist	Chiropodist
Realtor	Estate agent
Rummage sale	Jumble sale
Rutabaga	Swede, root vegetable
Skillet	Frying pan
Slingshot	Toy catapult
Snap fastener	Press stud
Solitaire	The card game of patience
Sophomore	Second-year student
Suspenders	Braces
Thumbtack	Drawing pen
Tick-tack-toe	Noughts and crosses
Transom	Fanlight
Truck from	Market garden
Trunk	The boot of a car
Tuxedo formal	Dinner jacket; man’s evening wear
Unlisted	Ex-directory
Vest	Waistcoat
Veteran	Ex-serviceman
Zip code	Postcode

American Indian Terms

Hogan	Navaho cabin of logs and mud
Moccasin	Soft leather shoe
Papoose	Baby or young child
Potlatch	Communal feast in north-west coastal regions, at which property is given away or destroyed
Powwow	Conference or ritual ceremony; medicine man
Pueblo	Communal residence or village in the southwestern U.S.
Sachem, Sagamore	Tribal chief
Squaw	Woman or wife
Tepee	Cone-shaped tent
Tomahawk	Light axe
Travois	Sledge-like vehicle formerly used by the Plains Indians
Wampum/peag	Shell beads are used for money or decoration
Wickiup	Temporary but of grass or reeds over a rough frame
Wigwam	Arching hut of branches, covered with bark, mats or hides

French Terms

A la mode	In fashion
Amour-proper	Self-esteem
Avant-garde	Ahead of the times, pioneering
Beau monde	Fashionable society
Beaux-arts	Fine arts
Belle epoque	“beautiful period” the era preceding the First World War
Belles-letters	Fine literature
Bon mot	Pithy witticism
Bonne bouche	Delectable titbit or item
Bon vivant	A person who enjoys luxurious living
Carte blanche	Freehand, unconditional authorization
Cause celebre	Interesting and controversial public issue
C’est la vie	That’s life!
comme il faut	Proper, in keeping with accepted standards
Cordon sanitaire	Buffer zone
Coup de grace	Conclusive stroke; death blow
Coup d’etat	The sudden overthrow of the government
Cri de Coeur	Heartfelt cry or appeal
Crime passionel	Crime provoked by sexual jealousy
Déjà vu	Sense of having undergone something for the first time now
Noblesse oblige	Obligation imposed by honour or rank
Nouveau riche	Newly and ostentatiously rich person
Pare excellence	To the highest degree
Parti pris	Prejudice
Passe	Out-of-date or fashion
Piece de resistance	Outstanding item
Pied-a-terre	Temporary or secondary residence
Pis aller	The desperate course of action, the last resort
Plat du jour	Dish of the day
Porte-cochere	Covered entrance to a building
Raison d’etre	Purpose of existence
Rechauffe	A rehash
Recherché	In great demand, mannered, affected
Demode	Out of fashion, out of date
De rigueur	Required by fashion or social custom
Dernier cri	Latest Fashion
De trop	Unwanted, getting in the way
Eminence grise	Influential person behind the scenes
Enfnant terrible	Provokingly unconventional person
En passant	By the way
Entente cordiale	Informal friendly understanding between nations
Entre Nous	Between ourselves
Esprit de crops	Group spirit, morale
Fait accompli	Irreversible fact
Faute de mieux	For want of anything better
Faux pas	Blunder
Haute couture	High fashion
Haute cuisine	High-class-cooking
Hors de combat	Out of action
Idee fixe	Obsession
idea recurs	Conventional opinion
Je ne sais quoi	An indefinable but distinctive quality
Jeu d’esprit	Witty comment
Jeunesse doree	Wealthy, fashionable young people
Joie de vivre	High spirits
Laissez-faire	Non-interference
Laissez-passer	Entry permit, pass
Mauvasi quart d’heure	Brief, nasty experience
Mot juste	The exact appropriate expression
Request	Indelicate or
Sang-froid	Calm self-control self-possession
Savoir-faire	Knowledge of appropriate behaviour
Soi-disant	Self-styled, so-called
Tant mieux	So much the better
Tant psi	So much worse
Tete-a-tete	Intimate conversation
Tour de force	Outstanding feat
Tout court	Plainly and simply
Trahison des clercs	Betrayal of a cause by intellectuals
Vis-à-vis	About compared with
Volte-face	About-turn, policy reversal

Latin Words and Phrases

A fortiori	All the more so, with even greater reason
A priori	Self-evident, known independently of experience; from the general to the part particular, as deductive reasoning is
Ah ovo	“from the egg”: from the beginning
Ad hoc	“for this thing”: for a particular purpose or occasion, as a committee might be
Ad hominem	“to the man”: directed at someone personally, as criticism might be
Ad ib, ad libitum	“at pleasure: freely, unscripted, improvised
Ad nauseam	To the point of disgust
Aegrotat	“he is ill”: sickness certificate
Alma mater	“nourishing mother”: one’s old school, college, or university
Alumnus	“foster child”: former pupil or student, as of an alma mater
Annus mirabilis	Year of wonders, great achievements or disasters, or the like
Bona fide	“in good faith”: genuine or sincere
Casus belli	“cause of war”: justification or cause of a dispute
Cave	“beware”: look out, be careful
Caveat emptor	“let the buyer beware”: the principle that a purchaser cannot assume that his purchase will be exactly as hoped
Compos mentis	“of sound mind”: sane
Cum laude	“with praise”: refers to a good examination result or degree
Curriculum vitae	“course of life”: outline or resume, as on a job application, of one’s qualifications and career
De facto	In reality; regardless of legal status
De jure	By the law, by right, legally
De Profundis	“from of depths”: in deep despair
Deo volente, d.v	“God willing”
Deus ex machina	“god out of a machine”: person or thing that suddenly resolves a problem; device providing a contrived resolution in a play
Ex gratia	“out of goodness”: refers to a payment made as a favour, not an obligation
Ex libris	“from the books”: a phrase used before the owner’s name on bookplates
Felo de se	“felon of himself”: suicide
Festina Lente	“hasten slowly”: more haste, less speed
Genius loci	“spirit of the place”: the atmosphere of a place and its influence on visitors
In loco parentis	“in the place of a parent “: having the responsibilities or role of a parent
In media's res	“into the middle of things”: the way a story of play might begin
In propria persona	In-person, personally
In toto	Completely, as a whole, totally
Infra dig, infra dignitatem	Beneath one’s dignity
Inter alia	Among other things
Ipso facto	“by the fact”: as an immediate consequence of that fact or act
Magnum opus	“great work”: major work of a writer, composer, or the like
Mea culpa	“my fault” acknowledging one’s guilt
Mirabile dictum	“wonderful to relate”: amazingly
Modus operandi	“way of living”: compromise or living arrangement between people or parties of different interests
Mutatis mutandis	With the necessary or appropriate changes having been made
Ne plus ultra	“no more beyond”: the limit; perfection
Nil desperandum	“nothing to be despaired of”: don’t despair; never say die
Non-sequitur	“It does not follow”: an illogical remark or inapplicable statement
Obiter dictum	“said by the way”: an incidental remark
Pace	“by leave of”: as used in front of someone’s name as an apology when contradicting him
Per capita	Measured” by head” of the population, per person
Per se	“by itself”, in itself, as such intrinsically
Persona non grata	“person not acceptable”: a person, especially a diplomat, whose presence is not welcome
Pons asinorum	“bridge of asses”; test for beginners; a problem that the slowwitted cannot solve
Prima facie	At first sight; on the face of it
Pro rata	In proportion
Quid pro quo	“something in return for something else”: a favour in return, a substitution or fair exchange
Quod erat demonstrandum, Q.E.D	“which was to be demonstrated”: as added to the end of proof to show that the point has been made
Rara avis	“rare bird”: unusual or exceptional person or thing
Sine die	“without a day”: at no set date, indefinitely
Sine qua non	“without which not”: a necessity, something indispensable
Status quo	The present position, the existing state of affairs
Sub rosa	“under the roes”: secretly, confidentially, privately
Sui generis	“of its kind “: unique
Victor ludorum	“winner of the games”: sports champion
Vox Popular	“the voice of the people “: public opinion

Legal terms

Affidavit	“he has sworn”: a sworn, written statement
Ancient lights	Right to unobstructed light; the right not to have the light you receive from a neighbour’s land blocked
Bill of lading	A receipt given by a carrier to someone who entrusts goods to the carrier for shipment, serving as a contract between shipper and carrier and giving its holder title to the goods held by the carrier
Bind over	Order a person to do something, such as keep the peace, or refrain from some action
Certioray	A writ of superior court to call up the records of an inferior court or a body acting in a quasi-judicial capacity
Codicil	Supplement or afterthought added to a will
Corpus delicti	“body of the crime”: material evidence or substance of a crime, such as corpse
Delict	Wrongful act, for which the injured party is entitled to compensation
Deposition	A written statement made under oath, presented as evidence in court
Distrain	Seize goods as redress or compensation
Easement	Right of a house-owner or landowner over another’s property, as for access
Entail	Setting the inheritance of an estate beyond one generation, so that it may not be disposed of by an individual heir
Equity	Body of legal rules based on natural justice and fairness, supplementing and moderating common and statute law
Escrow	Goods, money, a contract, or the like that is put in the safekeeping of a third party, are to be handed over only when certain conditions are met
Estovers	Articles such as fallen timber that tenants are legally permitted to remove from their landlord's estate
Ex parte	“on behalf of”: refers to a court application or injunction made on behalf of one side only
Garnishment	Court order requiring a trustee or third party holding property of a debtor either to withhold it from the debtor or to hand it over to the creditor
Habeas corpus	“you may have the body”: writ requiring that a detainee be produced before a court and reasons be given for his detention
In camera	“in the chamber”: refers to proceedings that a judge hears with the public excluded from the court
Indemnity	Legal exemption from penalties or liabilities one may incur or has incurred
Indictment	Written accusation, read out to the accused at a trial
In flagrante delicto	In the very act of committing a crime, red-handed
Injunction	Court order to carry out or refrain from an act, such as visiting a person or place
Laches	Negligence or unreasonable delay in pursuing a legal claim
Lien	Right to take or hold another’s property as security for a debt
Malice aforethought malice prepense	Premeditation, plan or conscious intention to commit a crime, especially a murder or a violent crime leading to death
Men's rea	Criminal intent
Nolle prosequi	“to be unwilling to pursue”: an entry in court records showing that a case was not proceeded with
Parole	“word of honour”: release of a prisoner, before the end of a sentence, on condition of good behaviour
Piscary	Establishing the validity of a will; document certifying the validity of a will
Pupillage	Apprenticeship as an advocate or barrister
Recusal	The act of a judge to remove or excuse themselves from hearing a particular case owing to a conflict of interest
Recognizance	Undertaking by a person to pay a debt to return to court on a specific day; money pledged as security for this
Sequestration	Seizure of goods or assets until conditions laid down in a decree have been met
Sub judice	“under a judge”: under deliberation by the courts, and therefore not open to public comment or discussion
Subpoena	A writ requiring a person to appear and give evidence in court
Tort	Breach or violation of civil law, other than breach of contract
Ultra vires	Beyond the legal powers of a person or institution
Usufruct	Right to use and benefit from another’s property, so long as it remains undamaged
Writ	A formal written order issued by a court
Zealous witness	A witness who displays favouritism towards one party in a case

Contronyms in English

The English language includes an interesting category of words and phrases called contronyms (also spelled contranyms or referred to as autoantonyms, antagonyms or Janus words) terms that, depending on context, can have opposite or contradictory meanings. When you use these words. Be sure the context identifies which meaning is intended:

Alight: to settle onto or to dismount from

Apology: A statement of repentance for an action, or a defence of one

Aught: All, or nothing

Bill: A payment, or an invoice for payment

Bolt: To secure, or to flee

Bound: Heading to a destination, or restrained from movement

Buckle: To connect, or to break or collapse

Cleave:To adhere, or to separate

Clip: To fasten, or detach

Consult: To offer advice, or to obtain it

Cull: To select or to reject

Custom: A common practice, or a special treatment

Discursive: Moving in an orderly fashion among topics, or proceeding aimlessly in a discussion

Dollop: A large amount (British English), or a small amount

Dust: To add fine particles, or to remove them

Enjoin: To impose, or to prohibit

Fast: Quick or stuck or made stable

Finished: Completed, or ended or destroyed

First degree: Most severe in the case of a murder charge, or least severe about a burn

Fix: To repair, or to castrate

Garnish: To furnish, as with food preparation, or to take away, as with wages

Give out: To provide, or to stop because of a lack of supply

Go: To proceed or succeed, or to weaken or fail

Grade: A degree of slope, or a horizontal line or position

Handicap: An advantage provided to ensure equality or a disadvantage that prevents equal achievement

Help: To assist, or prevent or (in negative constructions) restrain

Hold up: To support or to impede

Lease: To offer property for rent, or to hold such property

Left: Remained, or departed

Let: Allowed, or hindered

Liege: A feudal lord, or a vassal

Literally: Actually, or virtually

Mean: Average or stingy, or excellent

Model: An exemplar, or a copy

Off: Deactivated, or activated, as an alarm

Out: Visible as with stars showing in the sky, or invisible, in reference to lights

Out of: Outside, or inside, as in working out of a specific office

Overlook: To supervise, or to neglect

Oversight: Monitoring, or failing to oversee

Peer: A person of the nobility, or an equal

Presently: Now, or soon

Put out: Extinguish, or generate

Puzzle: A problem, or to solve one

Quantum: Essence, or a trifling point of contention

Quite: Rather (as a qualifying modifier), or completely

Ravel: To entangle, or to disentangle

Refrain: To desist from doing something, or to repeat

Rent: To purchase use of something, or to sell use

Sanction: To approve, or to boycott

Sanguine: Confidently cheerful, or bloodthirsty

Scan: To peruse, or to glance

Screen: To present, or to conceal

Seed: To sow seeds, or to shed or remove them

Shop: To patronize a business in order to purchase something, or to sell something

Skin: To cover, or to remove

Snap: To break into pieces or to fasten together

Spice: To join, or to separate

Stem: To start or originate or to stop or restrain

Strike: To hit, or to miss in an attempt to hit

Table: To propose (in British English), or to set aside

Temper: To soften, or to strengthen

Throw out: To dispose of, or to present for consideration

Transparent: Invisible, or obvious

Trim: To decorate, or to remove excess from

Trip: A journey, or a stumble

Unbending: Rigid, or relaxing

Variety: A particular type, or many types

Wear: To endure, or to deteriorate

Weather: To withstand, or to wear away

Wind up: To end, or to start up

With: Alongside, or against

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