Mesopotamian Civilization: The Oldest

Mesopotamian Civilization: The Oldest

Bronze Age Civilizations

Civilization of the World

Meaning and Geography:

• Mesopotamia means ‘land between the rivers’.

• Mesopotamia is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

• Mesopotamia comprises four regions: Sumer, the Southernmost region; Babylonia and Akkad (the middle region), and Assyria (the Northernmost region).

Hammurabi and His Code:

• Hammurabi (C. 2100 BC), the greatest Babylonian ruler, united the whole of what is now called Iraq into a single kingdom.

• Hammurabi gave his people a code of laws famous as ‘Hammurabi’s Code’.

• His code covered every aspect of life. His code was based on the law of ‘eye for eye’ and ‘tooth for tooth’, i.e., the law of ‘tit for tat’.

Invasions and Innovations:

• The Hittites, who came from Asia Minor (now Turkey) and destroyed the Babylonian kingdom, were the first to make regular use of horses for war chariots and to make iron implements.

Technological Achievements:

• The potter’s wheel was perhaps first used in Mesopotamia.

• The Mesopotamians also seem to have been the first to make glassware.

Writing System:

• The Sumerians were the first to evolve a proper system of writing.

• This system is called cuneiform.

• The cuneiform script was invented in C. 3400 BC.

• This script is found on clay tablets.

• The cuneiform script was deciphered by Henry Rawlinson.

Mathematics and Counting:

• The Mesopotamian system of counting is known as sexagesimal because the Mesopotamian people counted by sixes, as we count by tens (decimal system).

• Their sexagesimal system is no longer in use, but we still use it as the basis of the division of time into minutes and seconds and of a circle into 360 degrees.

Geometry and Astronomy:

• In geometry, the Mesopotamians had discovered what was later called Pythagoras’ theorem.

• In astronomy, the Mesopotamians made astonishing progress. They could calculate the length of the day and the night.

• They divided the whole day into 24 hours.

• They divided the sky into 12 parts, each assigned a name. This has come down to us as the 12 signs of the zodiac or rashis, as we call them in India.

• Another remarkable achievement of the Mesopotamians was the invention of a lunar calendar, based on the moon.

Egyptian Civilization

Geography:

• Egypt is called the ‘Gift of the Nile’.

Historical Periods:

• Historians divide the history of Egypt into three periods:

1. The Old Kingdom (also called the ‘Age of the Pyramids’)

2. The Middle Kingdom

3. The New Kingdom

Religion and Afterlife:

• The Egyptian king was called the pharaoh.

• The Egyptians were worshippers of nature, and the sun was their most important god.

• The Egyptians believed that after death, both the body and the soul live, while other people believed that only the soul lives and the body perishes.

• So the Egyptians took great care in preserving the body of the dead. The body was embalmed in spices and then wrapped in strips of fine linen. Such a preserved body is called a mummy.

• The mummy was put in a wooden box and buried.

Architecture:

• The Pyramids and the Sphinx are two specimens of Egyptian architectural excellence.

• The pyramids were the tombs of kings, and they contained the mummies of these monarchs.

• The most imposing of all is the Great Pyramid at Gizeh in Cairo, built by the king Cheops (Khufu) of the Old Kingdom.

• The Great Pyramid is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

• The Sphinx is a mythological animal with the body of a lion and the head of a man. Each Sphinx was carved out of a single solid rock.

Script and Numeration:

• The Egyptian script, known as hieroglyphics, was invented in C. 3100 BC.

• The script is found on papyrus sheets made of reeds.

• The Egyptian hieroglyphic script was deciphered by Champollion.

• The Egyptians developed a decimal system of numeration.

Calendar:

• The crowning achievement of the Egyptians was the solar calendar.

Harappan Civilization

• The Harappan Civilization extended over a larger area than any of the contemporary civilizations.

Note: For Details, See ‘Indus Civilization’/Harappan Civilization’ in Indian History General Awareness Page.

Chinese Civilization

Early Dynasties:

• The earliest Chinese civilization is the Shang civilization.

• The Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty.

Script and Language:

• The Chinese script is pictographic.

• Remarkably, the Chinese script has changed very little since the earliest times.

• The Chinese script was standardized by the Chin ruler.

• The Chinese script spread to other countries, also. It influenced the Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese scripts.

Calendar:

• The Chinese calendar, the Solar-lunar calendar, was a combination of the solar and lunar calendars.

• The Chinese were the first to calculate the length of the year as 365 1/4 days.

The Great Wall and Dynasties:

• In the 3rd century BC, the Chin dynasty became important.

• To keep out invaders from the north, he began construction of a wall known as the Great Wall.

• The Han dynasty followed the Chin dynasty in 202 BC, and the Han emperors ruled China for almost 400 years.

Governance and Education:

• The political practices of the Han rulers were greatly influenced by the teachings of Confucius.

• During the Han rule, to qualify for appointment, the young men had to pass through an elaborate system of examination before they were chosen.

• Such ‘scholar-officials’ came to be known as mandarins.

• The Chinese were the first civilization in history to have a system of selecting public officials on the basis of education and competitive examination.

Economy and Trade:

• Under the Han, silk was a principal item of export.

• Two main roads were built across the Great Wall to carry on trade with the West.

Religion and Philosophy:

• The two major religions of ancient China are Taoism (based on the teachings of Lao-tse: b, 604 BC) and Confucianism (based on the teachings of Confucius, 551 BC – 479 BC).

• Confucius was a contemporary of Mahavira and Buddha.

• Buddhism was brought into China by Indians during the Han rule.

Inventions and Contributions:

• The Great Wall is a mighty monument to the building skill of ancient China. This wall built of stone and earth to a height of 6 metres extends over 2400 km.

• In the 1st century AD, paper was invented in China.

• The invention of paper and its importance in spreading knowledge within and outside China make it one of the great contributions of China to the world.

• Some of the first historical works in the world were written in China. Each dynasty compiles its history.

• The pattern of these histories was set by Ssuma Chien (1st or 2nd cen BC), who is commonly remembered as the ‘Herodotus of China’.

• The water clock, abacus, and umbrella were invented by the Chinese.

• In the 2nd century. AD, the Chinese invented the seismograph.

Iranian Civilization

Achaemenid Empire:

• In the middle of the 6th century BC, a powerful empire – the Achaemenid empire – arose in Iran (Persia).

• The founder of this empire was Cyrus, with his capital at Pasaragadae.

• He was succeeded by Darius I (522 BC – 486 BC).

• The empire reached its greatest extent under him and covered the entire Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, and north-western India.

• He built a new capital at Persepolis.

• Darius I and his successors were involved in wars with the Greek states. They were defeated by the Greeks.

• Alexander dealt a final blow to the empire during the reign of Darius III.

Sassanid Empire:

• In the 3rd century AD, a new and powerful empire, the Sassanid Empire, arose in Iran.

• This empire, founded by Ardashir in 226 AD, held sway in Iran up to the middle of the 7th century AD.

Economy and Navigation:

• The Achaemenids had introduced the use of money – coins of gold and silver – on a large scale throughout the empire.

• Iran, in ancient times, produced several famous sailors and explorers.

• One of them, Scylax, undertook a voyage from the mouth of the Indus to Egypt on orders of Darius.

Religion:

• The main religion of the ancient Iranians was Zoroastrianism.

• This religion was founded by Zarathustra or Zoroaster (628 BC – 551 BC), as the Greeks called him in the 7th century BC.

• The teachings of Zarathustra are recorded in the Zend Avesta, the holy book of the Parsis.

• Zarathustra said that the world consists of two forces, good and evil.

• The god, Ahura Mazda, represents the forces of good, and Ahirman, the forces of evil.

• The sun and the fire came to be worshipped as visible symbols of Ahura Mazda, who represents light.

• Both Judaism and Christianity were indebted to Zoroastrianism.

Language and Literature:

• During the Achaemenid Empire, the official language was Aramaic.

• The Sassanids revived old Persian and made it the official language of their empire.

• A new script called Pahlavi had also been developed.

• The best-known ancient literature of Iran is the Zend Avesta, which contains the work of Zarathustra.

Final Thoughts

The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations were two of the most influential cultures in ancient history. While Mesopotamia laid the groundwork for law, writing, and timekeeping, Egypt left behind architectural marvels and a deep spiritual legacy.

Mesopotamian Civilization thrived in innovation and early urban development, while Egypt perfected the art of statecraft and the afterlife.
Both civilizations gave humanity gifts we still use—be it the calendar, writing systems, or complex governance.

Their contrasts in geography, religion, and leadership styles only deepen our appreciation for their achievements. Studying them side by side reveals how ancient minds shaped the future. These early river valley giants still echo through modern culture, science, and belief systems. Their legacies remind us that progress often flows where rivers—and ideas—run strong.