Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully placed its inaugural X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) into a meticulous circular orbit at an altitude of 650 km following a 21-minute flight on January 1. XPoSat represents the globe's second satellite mission exclusively focused on conducting X-ray polarimetry measurements.

About  XPoSat:

1. XPoSat, India's inaugural X-ray Polarimeter Satellite, is dedicated to studying X-ray polarization from bright celestial Sources within the medium frequency band.
2. The satellite features two key payloads, namely the Indian X-ray Polarimeter (POLIX) and X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing (XSPECT), developed by the Raman Research Institute and UR Rao Satellite Centre in Bengaluru.
3. Positioned in a low earth orbit at approximately 650 km with a low inclination of around 6 degrees, XPoSat is designed for observations of polarized X-rays.
4. The spacecraft is expected to operate for an estimated five years, during which it will focus on observing polarized X-rays emitted by Sources such as magnetars or neutron stars, known for their strong magnetic fields and diverse X-ray activities.
5. XPoSat's observations will particularly occur when these celestial objects, like magnetars or neutron stars, pass through Earth's shadow, such as during eclipse periods.

Payloads:

1. POLIX Payload:

• It is the world's pioneering instrument intended for operation within the medium X-ray range of 8 to 30 kilo electron Volt (keV).
• Components: POLIX comprises a crucial collimator, responsible for filtering light from bright Sources in the field of view, and a scatterer featuring four X-ray proportional counter detectors to prevent the escape of trapped light.
• Function: It is designed to observe several astronomical Sources and was entirely conceived, designed, and constructed at RRI (Raman Research Institute).

2. XSPECT Payload:

• It is designed for fast timing and high spectroscopic resolution, specifically in the soft X-ray energy band ranging from 0.8 to 15 keV.
• Observation Targets: XSPECT aims to observe a diverse range of Sources, including X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, low-magnetic field neutron stars, active galactic nuclei (AGNs), which are compact regions at the center of galaxies emitting significant energy across the electromagnetic spectrum, and magnetars.

Significance:

1. Historical Dependency on Traditional Data Sources:

• Astronomers have traditionally relied on data from ground-based telescopes or satellite missions covering the optical to radio frequency bands of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Celestial polarization was typically studied in the optical or radio bands.

2. XPoSat's Revolutionary Role:

• XPoSat represents a groundbreaking shift, enabling X-ray polarization measurements from bright Sources within the medium energy band of 8-30 keV, a novel endeavor in astronomy.

3. Targeted Celestial Sources:

• The XPoSat team has identified numerous X-ray-emitting Sources, categorizing them into persistent Sources (known and targeted) and transient Sources (such as pulsars, active galactic nuclei, and magnetars).

4. Deep space understanding:

• X-rays in space become polarized due to various factors, such as exposure to strong magnetic fields or interactions with material surrounding black holes.
• Studying polarized X-rays from Sources like magnetars, black holes, and neutron stars allows scientists to probe radiation nature and the intricate processes involved in radiation generation.

5. POLIX Mission Objectives:

• POLIX, as part of XPoSat, will conduct crucial measurements, including determining the degree and angle of polarization of X-ray photons in the vicinity of cosmic entities like black holes and neutron stars.

6. Comprehensive Data Integration:

• The combination of polarimetric data along with spectrographic, timing, and imaging data enhances researchers' ability to comprehensively understand celestial bodies.
• The goal is to unravel previously unknown mysteries of the Universe by improving the understanding of the radiations and processes associated with cosmic entities like black holes and neutron stars.

Need to study polarization of X rays:

• X-rays are composed of electric and magnetic waves in constant motion, characterized by sinusoidal waves lacking a specific direction.
• Polarized X-rays exhibit organization, featuring two waves vibrating in the same direction, unlike the random motion of non-polarized X-rays.
• When magnetars or black holes release X-rays, these encounter diverse materials in the Universe.
• As X-rays pass through thick material clouds, the electric component of the X-ray emits a photon in a different direction due to scattering.
• The resulting photon becomes polarized in a direction perpendicular to the plane formed by the original and scattered photon.
• Scattering during X-ray emission by magnetars or black holes alters the direction of the electric component of X-rays.
• This process results in the polarization of the new photon, perpendicular to the plane formed by the original and scattered photons.
• Polarization measurements, including angular and degree of polarization, are crucial for understanding bright X-ray-emitting Sources.
• These measurements offer insights into the nature of X-ray radiations and the intricate processes they undergo.
• By studying polarization in X-rays, scientists aim to gather valuable clues about the characteristics of Sources emitting bright X-rays, providing a deeper understanding of the radiations and the complex processes involved in their generation.

Comparasion of XPoSat with X-ray experiments in other countries:

• Few missions globally have focused on X-ray polarization measurements, such as HX-POL and XL-Calibur, which were balloon-based experiments conducted by NASA and collaborators. These were short-duration projects.
• Indian astronomers utilized AstroSat, launched in September 2015, for timing and broadband spectroscopy of X-ray Sources. However, no polarisation studies were conducted at that time.
• The scarcity of highly sensitive and precise instruments has posed significant challenges in the development of missions dedicated to X-ray polarization measurements.
• This difficulty has contributed to the limited number of missions in this domain.
• In 2021, NASA introduced the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), specifically designed for soft X-ray band polarization measurements (2 to 8 keV energy band).
• XPoSat, with its POLIX payload, aims to complement IXPE by extending the observational energy band. POLIX is designed to perform X-ray polarization measurements in the medium X-ray band (8 to 30 keV), providing additional insights and capabilities.
• POLIX, part of XPoSat, offers a unique contribution to X-ray polarimetry by operating in the medium energy band, differentiating it from the soft X-ray focus of the IXPE mission.

Context: There are not enough judges at all levels of the judicial hierarchy to deal with the increased workload. The result is that there is little time to reflect on issues which can change the course of the nation’s march forward. The collegium system has also been in news for tussles between the judiciary and the executive and the slow pace of judicial appointments.

About collegium system:

The collegium system, not originally mentioned in the constitution, is a process for appointing judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts in India.

Supreme Court Appointments:

• As per Article 124 of the constitution, Supreme Court judges are appointed by the President of India after consulting with the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges as deemed suitable.
• The collegium for Supreme Court appointments comprises the CJI and the four most senior judges of the Supreme Court.
• Appointments can involve elevating High Court judges to the Supreme Court or directly appointing experienced lawyers.

High Court Appointments and Transfers:

• According to Article 217, High Court judges are appointed by the President in consultation with the CJI, the Governor of the State, and the Chief Justice of that High Court.
• For transfers, the President may move a judge from one High Court to another after consulting with the CJI.
• The High Court collegium, consisting of the Chief Justice of the High Court and two other senior-most judges, recommends judicial appointments. However, the final decision lies with the Supreme Court collegium.

Role of Supreme Court Collegium:

• The Supreme Court collegium, consisting of the CJI and the two most senior judges, not only decides on appointments but also handles the transfers of High Court judges across the country.

Evolution:

The evolution of the collegium system in India traces back to the constitutional provisions regarding the appointment and transfer of judges.

Constitutional Framework:

• Initially, the Constitution vested the President with the authority to make appointments to the Supreme Court and High Courts and to transfer judges between High Courts.
• The President, acting on the advice of the council of ministers, was required to consult authorities like the Chief Justice of India (CJI) or the appropriate Chief Justice of the High Court, aiming to minimize executive influence and political interference.

First Judges Case (1981 - SP Gupta case):

• The Supreme Court ruled that "consultation" did not imply "concurrence," making the CJI's opinion non-binding on the executive.

Second Judges Case (1993):

• The court reversed its earlier stance, stating that "consultation" now meant "concurrence," making the CJI's advice binding on the President.
• The term "collegium" was introduced, and the CJI was to form an opinion through a body of senior judges.

Third Judges Case (1998):

• The collegium composition was clarified:
  • For Supreme Court appointments: CJI and four senior-most colleagues.
  • For High Court appointments: CJI and two senior-most colleagues, consulting other senior judges from the Supreme Court who had served in the concerned High Court.
• On whether the views of consultee-judges were binding on the collegium, the judgments remained silent.
• National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC):
  • The government attempted to replace the collegium with the NJAC through the 99th constitutional amendment.
  • The NJAC included the Union Minister for Law and Justice and two eminent persons, along with the CJI and the next two senior-most Supreme Court judges.
• Fourth Judges Case (2015):
  • The court affirmed the judiciary's primacy in judges' appointments as a fundamental aspect of the Constitution's basic structure.
  • It declared the NJAC unconstitutional, emphasizing that the law gave politicians an equal say in judicial appointments to constitutional courts.

Significance of collegiums system:

The Collegium System is deemed necessary for several reasons:

1. Preservation of Judicial Independence:

• It ensures the independence and impartiality of the judiciary by separating it from the influence of the executive and legislative branches.
• This upholds the principle of the separation of powers, preventing any organ of the State from interfering in the functioning of another.

       2. Effective Separation of Powers:

• The Collegium System strengthens the principle of the separation of powers, emphasizing that no state organ should intervene in the affairs of another.

      3. Judicial Autonomy from the State:

• With a significant portion of cases involving the government as a litigant, giving the executive power to transfer judges could potentially hinder the delivery of justice.
• The Collegium System prevents the fear of politically motivated transfers that might impede the impartial administration of justice.

4. Specialized Appointment Process:

• The executive organ may lack the specialized knowledge required for judge appointments.
• The Collegium, being a body of judicial experts, is better suited for appointing judges who possess the necessary qualifications and expertise.

5. Prevention of Nepotism and Political Interference:

• The Collegium System serves as a safeguard against nepotism and political interference in the judiciary.
• Instances of civil servants being transferred for political gains are mitigated, ensuring a fair and stable judicial system.

6. Enhanced Judicial Stability:

• By providing stability to judges, the Collegium System contributes to the overall consistency and reliability of the judicial process.

Challenges

The functioning of the collegium system in India is marred by several issues:

1. Lack of Transparency in Appointments:

• The collegium's operations are perceived as opaque, lacking defined norms for eligibility criteria and selection procedures.
• There is a lack of public information regarding when and how the collegium meets, and decisions are made without official minutes of the proceedings.

2. Nepotism and Favouritism:

• Allegations of nepotism and favoritism are prevalent, with judges in the collegium accused of recommending their close relatives for appointments.

3. Diversity Concerns:

• The absence of an institutional mechanism to ensure diversity on the Bench poses a challenge.
• Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), and minorities are significantly underrepresented in collegium selections.

4. Vacancy Challenges:

• Despite concerns about the backlog of cases, there is a persistent issue of non-filling of judicial vacancies in the Supreme Court.

5. Internal Conflicts:

• Conflicting opinions among collegium members hinder the effective functioning of the system.
• Recent instances, such as the differing views on circulating recommendations for Supreme Court appointments, exemplify internal disagreements.

6. Challenges with Conventions:

• Certain conventions, like the cessation of decision-making by the Collegium once a recommendation for the CJI's successor is made, pose challenges.
• This convention, based on seniority, may lead to shorter tenures for CJIs and potentially slow down decision-making processes.

Long pendency of cases:

• Decisions made after years have no relevance since the damage is already done and the clock cannot be turned back.

Context: The recent diplomatic overture during the visit Chief of the Army Staff of India, in November 2023, to the Republic of Korea, signifies a critical juncture in the trajectory of India-Korea defence relations. While this visit fortified diplomatic ties, it also unveiled the challenges, necessitating meticulous consideration.
Background:
India and the Republic of Korea have witnessed substantial progress in their bilateral relations, marked by a multifaceted approach driven by shared interests, mutual goodwill, and frequent high-level exchanges.

•    In the political arena, the bilateral relationship attained the status of a 'special strategic partnership' in May 2015, reflecting the depth of their engagement. India plays a pivotal role in South Korea's Southern Policy, emphasizing an expanded relationship beyond immediate regions. Simultaneously, South Korea is a key participant in India's Act East Policy, focusing on economic cooperation, cultural ties, and strategic relationships in the Asia-Pacific region.
•    On the economic front, the two nations set an ambitious bilateral trade target of $50 billion by 2030. The Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) signed in 2010 has been instrumental in fostering trade relations. To facilitate Korean investment in India, the "Korea Plus" facilitation cell was launched under 'Invest India,' providing guidance and support to investors.
•    In the cultural realm, historical ties are evident in the visit of Korean Buddhist Monk Hyecho in 723-729 AD, who documented his experiences in the travelogue "Pilgrimage to the five kingdoms of India." This work provides a rich account of Indian culture, politics, and society. Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore composed the poem 'Lamp of the East' in 1929, expressing admiration for Korea's illustrious past and anticipating a promising future.
These various dimensions of cooperation reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of India-South Korea bilateral relations, emphasizing a commitment to shared growth and mutual prosperity.

Challenges persisting between both countries:
1. Challenges in Korean Recognition of India's Role:
   - The Korean government needs to reassess its perception of India beyond being a major consumer of defense products.
2. Addressing Arms Lobbies and Prioritizing Long-Term Goals:
   - Powerful arms lobbies in both India and Korea pose potential roadblocks.
3. Challenges from Emerging Coalition:
   - The coalition of North Korea, China, and Russia presents a new challenge to collaborative efforts between India and Korea.

Solution:
1. Overcoming historical perceptions, where India was viewed in opposition to the Soviet bloc, is essential to foster a deeper partnership.
2. While weapons acquisition and technology transfer are vital, the Indian government should avoid overemphasizing these aspects, giving due attention to broader strategic considerations in the partnership.
3. Collaborating in developing advanced defence systems and equipment, leveraging their technological capabilities.Shared understanding of technology's pivotal role in future conflicts opens limitless opportunities for cooperation in the defence sector.
4. In an era emphasizing defense against space warfare, information warfare, and cybersecurity, India and South Korea can explore collaboration in these critical areas.Korea's advanced high-tech digital capabilities offer opportunities to develop robust security measures for countering emerging threats in the digital domain.
5. Strengthening coordinated efforts to counter terrorism aligns with the shared concerns of both India and South Korea.
6. Collaboration can enhance security measures to protect critical infrastructure and information, acknowledging the importance of safeguarding against evolving threats in the digital landscape.
7. India and South Korea aim to leverage their UN peacekeeping expertise for joint efforts, enhancing regional and global stability.
8. Joint exercises and exchange of best practices in HADR demonstrate the shared responsibility of both nations in addressing vulnerabilities to natural disasters.
9. Mutual growth is sought through enhancing joint army exercises, fostering interoperability, and strengthening the capabilities of both armies for effective collaboration in diverse scenarios.

The goal is to create a partnership that fosters peace, stability, and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific region. When united, both nations are prepared to navigate complexities and uncertainties, forging a path toward a stronger and more resilient partnership for the future.

Context: The state government of Himachal Pradesh has finally issued notification to give Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to the Hatti community of Trans-Giri area of Sirmaur district.

Background: The residents of the Trans-Giri area were demanding ST status on the lines of the Jaunsar-Bawar area of  . Uttarakhand granted in 1967 itself. Both Trans-Giri and Jaunsar Bawar area had remained part of erstwhile Sirmaur princely state and have similarity in all aspects.

About Hattis:

The Hattis form a tightly-knit community, earning their name from the practice of selling locally produced vegetables, crops, meat, and wool at small markets referred to as 'haats' in towns. During ceremonial events, Hatti men traditionally wear a distinctive white headgear.

• Geographically, the Hatti homeland spans the Himachal-Uttarakhand border within the Giri and Tons river basins, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
• The Tons river delineates the border between Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The Hattis residing in the trans-Giri area of Himachal Pradesh and Jaunsar Bawar in Uttarakhand were originally part of Sirmaur's royal estate until Jaunsar Bawar's separation in 1814.
• The community comprises two clans, one in Trans-Giri and the other in Jaunsar Bawar, sharing similar traditions, with inter-marriages being common.
• Despite this unity, a fairly rigid caste system is prevalent, with the Bhat and Khash considered upper castes and the Badhois placed below them, discouraging inter-caste marriages.
• The Hattis are governed by a traditional council called 'khumbli,' akin to Haryana's 'khaps,' which makes decisions on community matters. Despite the establishment of the Panchayati raj system, the Khumbli's authority remains unchallenged.
• Politically, the Hattis have a significant presence in approximately nine Assembly seats in the Sirmaur and Shimla regions.
• According to the 2011 Census of India, the tribal population in Himachal Pradesh, including the Hattis, constitutes 5.7% of the state's total population, numbering 3,92,126.

Demands:

• Their key demand revolves around seeking Scheduled Tribe status, a demand that has persisted since 1967. This appeal stems from the precedent set when tribal status was granted to residents of Jaunsar Bawar in Uttarakhand, an area sharing a border with the Sirmaur district.
• The primary issue prompting this demand is the topographical disadvantages faced by the Hattis residing in the Kamrau, Sangrah, and Shilliai regions of Himachal Pradesh. These geographical challenges have resulted in a lag in both education and employment opportunities for this community.

Status of Scheduled Tribes (ST) in India:

• In the context of India, Scheduled Tribes (ST) were initially termed as "backward tribes" residing in the "Excluded" and "Partially Excluded" areas, as per the Census of 1931.
• The Government of India Act of 1935 marked the first instance calling for representation of "backward tribes" in provincial assemblies.
• While the Constitution doesn't explicitly define the criteria for recognizing Scheduled Tribes, the 1931 Census definition was utilized in the initial post-independence years. However, Article 366(25) of the Constitution outlines the process for defining Scheduled Tribes: "Scheduled Tribes means such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this Constitution."
• Under Article 342(1), the President, with consultation with the Governor in the case of a State, may specify tribes, tribal 
• communities, or parts thereof as Scheduled Tribes for a particular State or Union Territory through a public notification.
• Currently, there are over 705 tribes that have been notified, with Odisha having the largest number of tribal communities.
• The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution addresses the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. Additionally, the Sixth Schedule pertains to the administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.

Landmark Supreme Court Judgments in 2023 and Their Impact

Global Nuclear Order

The Global Nuclear Order refers to the international system, agreements, norms, and structures that govern and regulate the use, possession, proliferation, and control of nuclear weapons and nuclear energy worldwide.

It encompasses a complex network of treaties, agreements, and norms that have evolved to manage the risks associated with nuclear weapons and promote nuclear stability, non-proliferation, disarmament, safety, and peaceful uses of nuclear technology.

About Global Nuclear Order (GNO)

• After Cuban Crisis: The Global Nuclear Order (GNO) was created after the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, the U.S and the U.S.S.R took a lead in this direction.
• Establishment of Hotline: It led to the establishment of the hotline in 1963 (a bilateral measure), to enable the leaders to communicate directly. The hotline (later upgraded into nuclear risk reduction centers) was followed by arms control negotiations.
• To Control Proliferation: In 1965, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. initiated multilateral negotiations in Geneva on a treaty to curb the spread of nuclear weapons. 
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): In 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) opened for signature. However, India had chosen not to sign the NPT, and in 1974, conducted an underground peaceful nuclear explosive, or PNE.
• The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): It was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974 and first met in November 1975. It observes common guidelines for exporting nuclear and related dual-use materials, equipment, and technologies. 
  • The London Club later transformed into the NSG, consisting of 48 countries today. 

Significance of the Global Nuclear Order (GNO)

• Control Nuclear Weapons & its Proliferation: The taboo against nuclear weapons has been held since 1945. It helped to survive 75 years of the nuclear age without blowing itself up.
• Maintenance of Stability: Arms control negotiations led to parity in strategic capacities creating a sense of arms race stability, and provided crisis management stability. 

Key components of the Global Nuclear Order?

The key components of the Global Nuclear Order are as follows:

1. Non-Proliferation - Efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to additional states.

2. Disarmament - Initiatives aimed at reducing and ultimately eliminating nuclear arsenals globally.

3. Nuclear Material Security - Measures to safeguard nuclear materials, facilities, and technologies from theft, sabotage, or unauthorized access.

4. Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy - Promotion of nuclear technology for peaceful purposes such as electricity generation, medicine, agriculture, and industry.

5. International Agreements and Treaties - Frameworks like the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), and others that establish norms, regulations, and obligations related to nuclear activities.

6. International Organizations and Agencies - Bodies like the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that oversee nuclear activities, inspections, and promote nuclear safety and security worldwide.

What is the current status of Nuclear Weapons?

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the global nuclear arsenal is witnessing the following developments:

1) Modernization and Expansion- The 9 nuclear-armed states, including the United States, Russia, and China, continue to modernize and expand their nuclear arsenals. Other nuclear-armed countries are the UK, France, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel.

2) Total Global Inventory- As of January 2023, the total global inventory of warheads is estimated at 12,512, with approximately 9,576 warheads held in military stockpiles for potential use.

3) Dominance of Russia and U.S.- Russia and the United States possess almost 90% of all nuclear weapons, with relatively stable sizes of their respective nuclear arsenals.

4) Arms Control Concerns- The suspension of the strategic stability dialogue and the Treaty on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (New START) has halted discussions for a follow-on treaty.

Changing Geopolitics From Bipolarity to Multipolarity: A New Era in Nuclear Politics

• Shift from Bipolarity to Multipolarity: 

  • The rise of China has introduced a new dimension to nuclear relations of the World.

• Changes in the U.S.-Russia Treaties: 

  • In 2002, the U.S. withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and in 2019, from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty and the only remaining agreement, New START Treaty is also facing uncertainty.

• New Nuclear Peer Rivals: 

  • The U.S. is facing two nuclear peer rivals (Russia and China). Also, the episode of the Ukraine war adds more uncertainty.

• Shifts in Technology: 

  • The 75-year-old nuclear technology on non-proliferation is undergoing shifts. 
  • The U.S. showed biasness for Israel, when it went nuclear in the 1960s-70s and again, when China helped Pakistan with its nuclear programme in the 1980s. 
  • Recently, the nuclear submarine AUKUS deal (Australia, U.S., U.K.) with Australia, a non-nuclear weapon state, is raising concerns in the NPT community.

• Changing Perspective: 

  • South Korea: During the 1970s, South Korea began to actively consider a nuclear weapons program, provoked by the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam. However, later South Korea was persuaded to join the NPT. But recent opinion polls indicate 70% support for developing a national nuclear deterrent.

  • Japan: As a nuclear victim, Japan retains a strong anti-nuclear sentiment but there is a shift too, visible in Japan’s decision to double its defence spending over next five years.

What conventions regulate the Global Nuclear Order?

1) Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), 1968 - The USA, UK and USSR put it forward. It was signed in 1968 and came into force in 1970. The treaty has 3 pillars:

(a) Non-proliferation- Nuclear Weapon States (NWS) pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons and technology and Non-nuclear Weapon States pledge not to acquire nuclear weapons;
(b) Disarmament- All parties to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures to control nuclear arms race, and to general and complete disarmament;
(c) Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy- The Treaty recognizes the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
India considers the treaty discriminatory as it creates a club of ‘nuclear haves‘ and a larger group of ‘nuclear have-nots‘ by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967. India hasn’t signed the treaty.

2) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - Seeks to ban all nuclear explosions for both civilian and military purposes. It prohibits nuclear testing, thus preventing further advancement of nuclear weapons capabilities.

3) Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, 2017- It prohibits and makes it illegal to possess, use, produce, transfer, acquire, stockpile or deploy nuclear weapons. States are also prohibited from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons and other nuclear explosive devices. It came into force in 2021.

4) Export Control Groupings- Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and the Missile Technology Control Regimes (MTCR) are some of the nuclear export control groupings. These ensure that nuclear fuel export doesn’t result in nuclear weapons development.

5) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Safeguards Agreement- Governs the verification and inspection of nuclear facilities to ensure they are used for peaceful purposes and not for the development of nuclear weapons.

What is India’s position in the Global Nuclear Order?

1) Non-Signatory to NPT - India is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which distinguishes it from many other nuclear-armed nations.

2) Nuclear Weapons Possession - India possesses nuclear weapons and conducted nuclear tests in the past, facing sanctions but later negotiating agreements for civilian nuclear cooperation.

3) Advocate for Global Disarmament - India advocates for global nuclear disarmament while seeking recognition as a responsible nuclear power.

4) Complex Position - India’s stance is complex due to its pursuit of civilian nuclear energy for development and maintaining a nuclear deterrence policy.

5) International Engagement - Despite not being a signatory to the NPT, India engages in international nuclear forums, emphasizing its non-proliferation track record and commitment to global security.

6) Nuclear Disarmament - India supports complete disarmament within a specified timeframe which distinguishes its stance from Nuclear Weapon States (NWS) which have an ambiguous stand regarding timeline for disarmament. India also insists that disarmament must be ‘non-discriminatory’ and pursued ‘on the basis of equality’ i.e., there must be no discriminatory provisions in favor of NWS as is the case with the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

How GNO has performed?

• Nuclear taboo – It has been held since 1945 and humanity has survived 75 years of the nuclear age without blowing itself up.

• Successful non-proliferation – While more than 20 countries were predicted to possess nuclear weapons by the 1970s, (5 in 1968 – the U.S., U.S.S.R., U.K., France, and China), only 4 countries have since gone nuclear, i.e., India, Israel, North Korea, and Pakistan.
• Strategic stability – It is based on assured 2^nd strike capability, guaranteed by the enormous arsenals that both the US and Russia had built up.
• This eliminated any incentive to strike 1^st ensuring deterrence stability.
• Arms control negotiations led to parity in strategic capacities creating a sense of arms race stability, and fail-safe communication links provided crisis management stability.
• Denuclearisation – Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan were denuclearised hosted Soviet nuclear weapons, and possessed some capabilities.
• Extension of NPT – In 1995, the NPT, originally concluded for 25 years, was extended into perpetuity.
• Active role of USA - Between 1977 to 1988, the U.S. actively subverted Taiwan’s nuclear weapons program as it stepped up the normalization of ties with China.
• During the 1970s, South Korea considered a nuclear weapons program but France withdrew its offer to supply a reprocessing plant to South Korea under U.S. pressure.
• Limitations – Arms control did not end the US-USSR nuclear race.
  • In fact, their arsenals grew from 28,000 bombs in 1962 to over 65,000 bombs in the early 1980s.

Since the late 1980s, the U.S. and Soviet arsenals have declined sharply, to below 12,000 bombs today mostly due to the end of the Cold War rivalry and the breakup of the U.S.S.R.

What are the issues with the Global Nuclear Order?

The Global Nuclear Order faces several significant challenges and issues:

1) Proliferation - One of the most critical issues is the spread of nuclear weapons to additional countries. This creates concerns about regional stability, as more nuclear-armed states increase the risk of conflict and the potential for catastrophic consequences.
For instance, the AUKUS deal includes providing nuclear submarines to Australia (a non-nuclear state).

2) Arms Control and Disarmament - The existing arms control agreements, such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), face challenges in implementation and adherence. Additionally, there’s a lack of progress in further disarmament efforts by nuclear-armed states, which leads to concerns about the global disarmament agenda.

3) Modernization and Technology - Nuclear-armed states continue to modernize their arsenals, developing more advanced and potentially destabilizing technologies. Advancements in missile defense systems, hypersonic weapons, and other emerging technologies contribute to uncertainties in strategic stability.

4) Emerging Threats and Actors - Non-state actors or rogue states acquiring nuclear materials or technology pose significant risks. The potential for cyberattacks targeting nuclear facilities or command systems adds a new dimension of concern.

5) Geopolitical Tensions - Tensions between nuclear-armed states, such as those between the US, China, Russia, and other countries, create instability. Proxy conflicts, territorial disputes, and geopolitical rivalries heighten the risk of nuclear confrontation. For instance, Russia de-ratifying CTBT; Withdrawal of USA and Russia from bilateral treaties.

6) Safety and Security - Ensuring the safety and security of nuclear materials, facilities, and technologies remains a persistent challenge. Accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons due to technical failures, human error, or terrorist actions is a significant concern.

What are the issues with the Global Nuclear Order in the context of India?

India’s position within the Global Nuclear Order presents specific challenges and concerns:

1) Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) status - India is not a signatory to the NPT, which creates complexities in its relationship with the global nuclear order. India’s nuclear program was developed independently, leading to its status as a nuclear-armed state outside the NPT framework.

2) Nuclear Arsenal Expansion - India continues to expand and modernize its nuclear arsenal. This expansion raises concerns about regional stability, especially given the long-standing tensions with Pakistan and the strategic rivalry with China.

3) Relations with Pakistan - The nuclear dynamics between India and Pakistan pose significant challenges. Both countries possess nuclear weapons, and historical animosities and frequent border disputes elevate the risk of a nuclear conflict, creating instability in South Asia.

4) China Factor- India’s nuclear policy is also shaped by its relations with China. As China continues to modernize its nuclear capabilities, India might feel compelled to bolster its arsenal, leading to an arms race and heightened tensions in the region.

Maintaining stability in its volatile region, engaging in dialogue with Pakistan and China, and ensuring the safe and responsible management of its nuclear arsenal are crucial steps for India within the Global Nuclear Order. Additionally, India’s active participation in global non-proliferation initiatives and strengthening regional cooperation mechanisms can contribute to stability and security in South Asia.

What should be the way forward?

Creating a just, safe, and improved Global Nuclear Order involves a multifaceted approach that integrates various elements of diplomacy, technology, governance, and international cooperation. Here are some key steps that could contribute to achieving such a vision:

1) Disarmament and Reduction of Nuclear Weapons -

• a. Encourage nuclear-armed states to commit to significant and verifiable reductions in their nuclear arsenals through bilateral or multilateral agreements.

• b. Support dialogue and negotiations among nuclear-armed states to create a conducive environment for disarmament efforts.

2) Strengthening Non-Proliferation Efforts - Strengthen international efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons technology and materials.

3) Inclusive Dialogue and Multilateral Diplomacy - Encourage open and inclusive dialogue among all stakeholders, including nuclear-armed and non-nuclear-armed states, to address concerns and build trust.

4) Engagement with Emerging Technologies - Monitor and address potential risks associated with emerging technologies, such as cyber threats to nuclear facilities, to ensure a secure nuclear order.

5) Support for New Treaties and Agreements - Advocate for and support initiatives like the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) while engaging nuclear-armed states to participate in discussions toward a world without nuclear weapons.

6) Education and Public Awareness- Foster awareness and education regarding the risks and consequences of nuclear weapons, promoting public support for disarmament and non-proliferation efforts.