Issues in 20th Century: Russian, Chinese, Turkish Revolution/ Fascism, Nazism/ Second World War

Issues in 20th Century: Russian, Chinese, Turkish Revolution/ Fascism, Nazism/ Second World War

Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points

In an address to the Congress in Jan., 1918, American President Woodrow Wilson outlined the basis of a peace settlement. His famous Fourteen Points for lasting peace in the world are:
1. There was to be no more secret diplomacy;
2. Freedom of the seas;
3. Removal of economic barriers of international trade;
4. Reduction of armaments;
5. Impartial adjustment of all colonial claims on the basis of the interests of the subject population;
6. National self-determination;
7. Establishment of a league of Nations for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity of great and small states alike.
8.-14. The remaining points dealt with the formation of new boundaries and new states on the basis of nationality and demanded that Germany must evacuate all lands she had forcibly occupied.

The peace settlement of 1919-20 has been severely criticised. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were harsh and humiliating for Germany. The peace settlement was based on the principle: To the victors belong the spoils and Allies are the victors'. Meanwhile the many suggestions were made from time to time for the creation of an international organisation which could check wars in the future. At the instance of Woodrow Wilson, the President of America, the League of Nations officially came into existence of Jan. lO, 1920. Its headquarter was fixed at Geneva in Switzerland.

Russian Revolution: 1917

• The Russian Revolution of 1917 was one of the most significant events of 20th century. It established the ideology of Marxism. It was a great revolution after the French revolution and was not limited to Russia but affected several countries of the world.
• The great revolution in Russia took place in two stages. The first stage of the Russian Revolution began in March 1917 with the overthrow of the Czar Nicholas IIThe second stage in Nov. of the same year led to the establishment of the world's first communist state by the Bolsheviks under Lenin.
• The basic causes of the revolution were deep-seated. The government was autocratic. The Czar was the source of all authority and his powers were vigorously exercised by corrupt and inefficient bureaucracy. The general standard of living of the people was tragically low. There was little social freedom. All Russians were forced to support the orthodox church.
• The immediate cause of the event was however the suffering and confusion caused by Russia's disastrous defeats during World War I. Her armies lacked arms and ammunition. Prices soared high and the economy was in shambles.
• Russian Revolution began with March Revolution (February Revolution, according to old Russian Calendar). Disorder broke out in Petrograd (now Leningrad), the Russian capital, in March 1917. Czar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. (He and his family were later killed by the revolutionaries).
• A provisional government composed of liberal and democratic elements (Mensheviks group) under the successive premiership of Prince Lvov and thenAleksandr Kerensky lost ground to the radical wing (Bolsheviks group) of the Social Democratic Labour Party.

Socialism

Political and Economic Theory that land, transport, industries, natural resources e.g. coal, water, power should be owned and managed by the state and wealth equal distributed.

In 1848, Karl Marx and Engels laid down the principles of scientific socialism in ‘Communist Manifesto’ and Marxism became the theoretical basis for most socialist thought.

Socialism was split in Russia between the reformist Mensheviks and revolutionary Bolsheviks that led to the term Socialism and  Communism as they are now generally understood.

• The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in Petrograd on Nov. 7, 1917—November Revolution (October Revolution, according to the old Russian calendar). The Kerensky Government was overthrown and authority was vested in a council of Commissars (Ministers) with Lenin as Premier.
• The new Government immediately decreed the abolition of private land ownership and set up a dictatorship of the Proletariat—actually of the Communist Party, as the Bolsheviks came to called.
• The Bolsheviks extended their authority over a large part of European Russia, but elsewhere they faced the resistance of the anti-Bolshevik Parties. The resulting civil war lasted till 1920 and was complicated by foreign intervention. The communists were ultimately in undisputed control of the country.
• In the period between 1917 and 1920, the Communists took drastic action against internal enemies, or counterrevolutionaries, as they were called. Former landlords, capitalists, Czarist officers, etc. were arrested, exiled or executed, the Czar and his family were killed.
• In 1923, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) came into being. Its constitution declared the establishment of a 'republic of workers and peasants'. Ownership of the means of production, including land, factories, mines, banks and railroads was vested in the state. The state which is known officially as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U. S. S. R.), also commonly referred to as the Soviet Russia or just Russia.
• Lenin died in 1924 and was succeeded by Stalin (1924-53).

Note: In 1991, Communist Party rule in Soviet Union collapsed following the failure of an anti-Gorbachov coup by Communist hardliners. The constituent republics asserted their independence and the Soviet Union was officially dissolved on Dec. 25, 1991. In the same month the Commonwealth of Independent States (C.I.S.), a looser organisation with responsibility for economic & military co-operation was formed by Russia, Ukraine & Belarus. Nine other former Soviet republics joined later. Now CIS is a community of 12 independent states. Three former Soviet republics (Baltic States)—Estonia, Latvia &Lithuania—are fully independentstates. It is notable that Soviet Union was a federal state consisting of 15 separate republics.

Chinese Revolution:

1911 (Republican Revolution); 1949 (Communist Revolution)

• In Oct 1911,  a revolution under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen ousted the Manchu or Ch'ing Dynasty and a republic was set up.
• However, the first President Sun Yat-sen resigned in 1912, in favour of strongman Yuan Shik-Kai (1912-16). The period 1916-18, known as the Warlord Era, was one of great chaos, as a number of generals seized control of different provinces.
• A party known as the Kuomintang (KMT) or Nationalists (formed by Sun YatSen in 1912) was trying to govern China and control the generals who were busyfighting each other. The KMT leaders were Sun Yatsen and after his death in 1925, General Chiang Kai-Shek.
• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921, and at first it cooperated with the KMT in its struggle against the warlords.
• As the KMT gradually established control over more and more of China, it felt strong enough to do without the help of the communists, and it tried to destroy them.
• The communists, under their leader Mao Tse-tunge (Mao Zedong), reacted vigorously, and after escaping from surrounding KMT forces, embarked on the 6000 mile Long March (Oct. 1934-Oct. 1935) to form a new power base in northern China.
• Civil war dragged on, complicated by Japanese interference which culminated in a full-scale invasion in 1937.
• When the Second World War ended with defeat for Japan and their withdrawal from China, the KMT and the CCP continued to fight it out.
• Chiang Kai-Shek had help from the USA, but in 1949 it was Mao Tse-tunge and the communists who finally triumphed.
• Chiang Kai Shek and his supporters fled to the island of Taiwan (Formosa).
• Mao Tse-tunge quickly established control over the whole of China and he remained leader until his death in 1976.

Turkish Revolution: 1923

• Turkey was called ‘Sickman of Europe'.
• The disintegration of the Ottoman empire began in the 19th century and was completed after Turkey's defeat in the First World War.
• The Allies wanted to establish their domination over Turkey itself and to give away parts of Turkey to Greece and Italy.
• The treatment meted out to Turkey by the Allies had led to a mass upsurge in India directed against Britain. This upsurge is known as the Khilafat Movement.
• The nationalist movement in Turkey was organised to prevent the domination of the country by the Allied Powers and the annexation of parts of Turkey agreed to the terms dictated by the Allied Powers.
• However, even before the treaty was signed by the Sultan, a national government had been established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha with its headquarter in Ankara.
• Following the treaty with the Sultan, Turkey had been invaded by Greece.
• The turks under Kemal's leadership were able to repel the invasion and the Allies were forced to repudiate the earlier treaty. The Allied troops were withdrawn from Turkish territory and the areas which were to be annexed by European countries remained in Turkey Thus, Turkey was able to win her complete independence.
• The success of the Turks in winning the complete independence of their country was followed by a programme to modernize Turkey and to end the influence of backward-looking feudal elements.
• Turkey was proclaimed a republic on Oct. 29,1923 and Kemal became the first President of Turkey. He ruled the new republic for 15 years (1923-38). The Turkish Sultan had carried the title of Caliph (Khalifa); the new government abolished the institution of Caliph (Khalifa) in 1924. Education was taken out of the hands of the religious leaders. Religion was separated from the State.
• Mustafa Kemal Pasha is known as the 'founder of modern Turkey' and 'Ataturk' (the father of the Turks).

Economic Depression of the World: 1929-34

• In Economic terms, a decline in trade and general prosperity is called Depression.
• The Great Depression of 1929-34 was worldwide, starting with an agricultural recession followed by financial panic and collapse, known as the Wall Street Crash (Oct., 1929) in the USA.
• The effects on the USA were catastrophic : by 1933 almost 14 million people were out of work and American President Hoover's efforts failed to make any impression on the crisis.
• Nobody was surprised when the Republicans lost the presidential election of Nov., 1932. The new Democrat President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduced policies known as the New Deal to try and put the country on the road to recovery.
• The Great Depression in turn affected financial institutions and money markets in other parts of the world and caused a run on the pound in the UK. The result was a decline in internal consumption and exports in industrialized countries, factory closures and massive unemployment.

Fascism in Italy

• The unification of Italy was only completed in 1870, however, the new state suffered from economic and political weaknesses.
• The First World War (1914-18) was a great strain on her economy, and there was bitter disappointment at her treatment by the Versailles settlement.
• Between 1919 and 1922 there were five different governments, all of which were incapable of taking the decisive action that the situation demanded.
• In 1919 Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fascist Party, which won 35 seats in the 1921 elections.
• At the same time there seemed to be a real danger of a left-wing revolution; in an atmosphere of strikes and riots, the fascists staged a 'March on Rome' which culminated in King Victor Emmanuel inviting Mussolini to form a government (Oct., 1922); he remained in power until July 1943.
• Gradually Mussolini took on the powers of a dictator and attempted to control the entire way of life of the Italian people.

Fascism

The ideology and political system of Benito Mussolini, which encouraged militarism and extreme nationalism, organizing Italy along right-wing hierarchical authoritarian lines fundamentally opposed to democracy and liberalism. The term is also applied to any ideology or movement inspired by such principles, e.g., German National Socialism.

• At first it seemed as though his authoritarian regime might bring lasting benefits to Italy, and he won popularity with his adventurous and successful foreign policy.
• Later he made the fatal mistake of entering the Second World War on the side of Germany (June, 1940) even though he knew Italy could not afford involvement in another war.
• After the Italians suffered defeats by the British, who captured her African possessions and occupied Sicily they turned against Mussolini. He was deposed and arrested (July, 1943), but was rescued by the German (Sep., 1943) and set up as ruler in northern Italy, backed by German troops.
• In April, 1945, as British and American troops advanced northwards through Italy towards Milan. Mussolini tried to escape to Switzerland but was captured and shot dead by his Italian enemies (known as partisans)

Nazism in Germany

• As Germany moved towards defeat in 1918, public opinion turned against the government, and in Oct, the Kaiser, in a desperate bid to hang on to power appointed Prince Max as Chancellor. He was known to be in favour of more democratic form of government in which parliament had more power.
• But it was too late; in Nov. revolution broke out, the Kaiser escaped to Holland and abdicated, and Prince Max resigned. Friedrich Ebert, leader of the left-wing Social Democrat Party, became head of the govemment.
• In Jan., 1919, a general election was held, the first complete democratic one ever to take place in Germany The Social Democrats emerged as the largest single party and Ebert became the first President of the Republic They had some Marxist ideas but believed that the way to achieve socialism was through parliamentary democracy.
• The new government was by no means popular with all Germans : even before the elections the communist had attempted to seize power in the Spartacist Rising (Jan., 1919)
• In 1920 right-wing enemies of the republic occupied Berlin (the Kapp Putsch). The government managed to survive these threats and several later ones, including Hitler's Munich Beer Hall Putsch (1923).
• By the end of 1919 a new constitution had been agreed upon by the National Assembly (Parliament), which was meeting at Weimer because Berlin was still torn by political unrest. This Weimer constitution, gave its name to the Weimer Republic and lasted until 1933 when it was destroyed by Hitler. The Great Depression, beginning with the Wall Street Crash in Oct., 1929, had disastrous effects on Germany, producing massive unemployment with 6.5 million unemployed. The Government was unable to cope with the situation and by the end of 1932 the Weimer Republic seemed to be on the verge of collapse.
• Meanwhile Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazis) had been carrying out a great propaganda compaign blaming the government for all the ills of Germany, and setting out Nazi solutions to the problems.
• In Jan., 1933, President Hindenberg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, and soon afterwards Hitler saw to it that democracy ceased to exist; the Weimer Republic was at an end, and from then on until April 1945, Hitler was the dictator of Germany. Only defeat in the Second World War and the death of Hitler (April 30, 1945) freed the German people from the Nazi tyranny.
• Adolf Hitler appointed Rudolf Hess as 'Deputy Fuheror' of Nazi Party in 1933. Hess delivered a speech on the occassion of the first anniversary of the proclamation of the party progress on 25 Feb., 1934, which was broadcast to the nation. In his speech (the oath to Adolf Hitler) he said "Adolf Hitler is Germany and Germany is Adolf Hitler. He who pledges Himself to Hitler pledges himself to Germany".

Mitarism in Japan

• During the 20 years after Mussolini's March on Rome (1922), many other countries, faced with severe economic problems, followed the examples of Italy and Germany and turned to fascism or right-wing nationalism.
• In Japan the democratically elected government, increasingly embarrassed by economic, financial and political problems, fell under the influence of the army in the early 1930s.
• The military soon involved Japan in war with China, and later took the country into the Second World War with its attack on Pearl Harbor (1941).
• After a brilliant start, the Japanese eventually suffered defeat and devastation when the two atomic bombs were dropped.
• After the Second World War, Japan returned to democracy and made a remarkable recovery, soon becoming one of the world's most powerful states economically.

SECOND WORLD WAR: Sep 1, 1939 – Sep 2, 1945

Causes of the Second World War:

The causes of Second World War are as under—

1. The Treaty of Versailles (1919):

The Treaty of Versailles had in itself the germs of the Second World War. The Germany was very badly treated. She was forced to sign the treaty at the point of a bayonet, in a spirit of revenge. To tear away the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler joined hands with Mussolini of Italy.

2. Nationalist Movements of Germany & Italy:

The rise of the national movement in Germany & Italy added fuel to the fire. Although Hitler tried to assure the world that he meant peace, he could not conceal his ambition for long. He embarked on a career of aggression which ultimately led to war. The same was the case with Mussolini who had established his dictatorship in Italy in 1922.

3. Conflict of Ideology between Dictatorship & Democracy:

Countries like Germany, Italy & Japan represented the ideology of dictatorship while Great Britain, France & USA represented the ideology of democracy. Mussolini described the conflict between the two ideologies thus: 'The struggle between the two worlds can permit no compromise. Either we or they'.

4. Inefficiency of League of  Nations:

Unfortunately, when hostility was growing between the two camps there was no effective international organisation which could bring the leaders of the two camps on a common platform and bring about a reconciliation between them. The League of Nations was practically dead.

5. Colonial & Commercial Rivalry:

The colonial and commercial rivalry between England and France on one side, and Germany and Italy on the other brought them in to conflict with each other.

6. Aggressiveness of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis:

Hitler had become very aggressive. He annexed the Saar Valley, occupied Rhineland and Austria, captured Czechoslovakia etc. Mussolini attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopiaj Jap an attacked China. This aggressive mood of the Fascist Powers got its fullest expression when they formed an Axis providing for mutual aid in the international sphere.

7. Immediate Cause:

The immediate cause of the war was the refuse of Poland to surender. Germany gave an ultimatum to Poland regarding : (i) surrender of the port of Danzig, (ii) the right of establishing a rail link between Germany and East Prussia through the Polish corridor. These two demands were rejected by Poland. So Germany invaded Poland on Sep. 1, 1939. Britain and France as they were under treaty obligations to aid Poland, declared war against Germany on Sep. 3,1939.

Important Axis Leaders of WW II:

Adolf  Hitler (Nazi dictator of Germany),  Benito Mussolini (Prime Minister of Italy) and Hirohito (Emperor of Japan) & his Prime Ministers Hidehi Tojo & Fumimaro Konoe.

Important Allied Leaders of WW II:

Franklin D. Roosevelt — upto April 12,1945 & Harry Truman—after April 12,1945 (Presidents of USA), Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of Britain), Joseph Stalin (Premier of USSR), Paul Reynaud & Charles De Gaulle (Prime Ministers of France) and Chiang Kai-shek (Head of the Nationalist Government of China).

Events of War:

WW II: Axis Vs Allies

The Axis Powers or Central Powers

Germany, Italy (entered June 1940), Japan (entered Dec. 1941) etc.

The Allies Powers or Allied Powers

Great Britain, France, USSR (entered June 1941), USA (entered Dec. 8, 1941), China (entered Dec. 1941) etc.

On one side were Germany, Italy and Japan, called the Axis Powers (or Central Powers), and on the other were Great Britain, France, USSR, USA, China etc. called the Allied Powers (or Allies).

Germany had to face defeat once again. Hitler, Goebbels & Himmler committed suicide (April 30, 1945) and their successors surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945. After the fall of Germany, USA and UK concentrated their focus against Japan. On Aug. 6, 1945, an atom bomb, Little Boy, was dropped on the city of Hiroshima. Japan was asked to surrender and when she refused another atom bomb, 'Fat Mari', was dropped on Aug. 9, 1945, on the city of Nagasaki. It is estimated that more than one lakh persons were killed and leaving thousands more slowly dying of radiation poisoning. On Aug. 14, 1945, Japan conveyed its acceptance of the Allied demand to surrender but the actual surrender took place on Sep. 2, 1945. With the Japanese surrender, the Second World War came to an end.

Effects of WWII:

1. After about 15 months of preparatory work, the peace treaties were given a final shape by the 21 participating countries and they were signed on Feb. 10, 1947 in Paris by the representatives of the five enemy states and the Allied Powers. As regards Germany she was occupied by the Big Four. After its fall in May, 1945, it was divided into four zones, each of which was administered separately by one of the occupying powers. Berlin came under joint occupation. Ultimately out of one Germany came two countries — West Germany and East Germany. Italy was also deprived of her colonies. As regards Japan, a peace treaty was signed with her at San Francisco in 1951.

2. The United Nation Organisation (UNO) was established in Oct. 24, 1945.

3. The USA and USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations in the world.

4. The emergence of Russia (USSR) gave riseto the desire for freedom in colonies which were under European control in Asia.

5. The British empire thus rapidly lost its leadership as more and more of its colonies won independence.

6. France also lost much of their past glory.

7. Nearly all the East European countries embraced communism and communist rule was established in the Chinese mainland also.