Greek Writers - Foreign Sources

Greek Writers - Foreign Sources

It is remarkable, Alexander's invasions find no mention in Indian sources, and it is totally on the basis of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct the history of his Indian invasions.

Greek Writers of Pre-Alexandrian Time

The names of Gek writersfromf Pre-Alexandriantimes are Scylass. Hecataeus Milletas, Herodotus de Khesias:

Scylax

• Scylax (6th Century BC) was the first Greek writer who write about India.

• He was the Greek soldier of King Darius I (550 BC- 486 BC) of Persia (Iran). He was sent by the king to discover the course of the Indus River.

• He wrote his travel account, but his knowledge was limited to the Indus Valley.

Hecataeus Milletus

• Hecataeus of Milletus (549 BC- 498 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer. His knowledge about India was limited to the Indus Valley.

Herodotus

• Herodotus (484 BC- 425 BC) is called the father of history.

• He, in his famous text Histories, gives us sufficient information about Persian (Iranian) and Greek invasion and Indo-Persian/Iranian relations.

• Although he never visited India, he tells us about the political condition of North-West India in his time.

• He knew of India as the easternmost and the most numerous people inhabiting the empire of the Persian emperor, Darius I.

• The land region of Northern India, 20th satrapy (ie, province) of Danus's empire, paid him the huge annual tribute of 360 talents of gold dust.

• He writes that Indians wear clothes made of wool, which grows on trees.

• It proves that, long before the Christian era, Indians were familiar with the cultivation of cotton and made use of the cotton fibre to weave their clothes, when Greeks knew nothing about it.

• Herodotus sometimes could be led away from the truth that can be seen from his account of gold-digging ants the size of dogs.

Khesias

• Khesias (416 BC- 398 BC) was a Greek physician at the court of the Persian emperor Artaxaxes Mhemon.

• He had every opportunity of knowing the stories about India, but he left an account titled "Persica," which is full of lies and exaggerations.

• It has survived only in the form of an abridgement.

Greek Writers of Alexandrian Time

The names of Greek writers of Alexandrian time are Nearchus, Onesicritus & Aristobulus:

Nearchus

• Nearchus was the classmate and Admiral of the naval fleet of Alexander the Great.

• He was sent by Alexander to discover the coastal area between the Persian Gulf and the Indus.

• His original book has been lost, but later writers like Strabo, Arrian, etc. quoted passages from the original book.

Owesicrit

• Owesicrit was the Pilot of the Navad fleet of Alexander De Grest.

• He took part in the expeditions of Nearchus and wrote a book about India.

• He also wrote the biography of Alexander the Great.

Aristobulus

• Aristobulus was a geographer, and Alexander gave him some responsibilities.

• He described his own experiences in the book "The History of War."

• Later Greek winter, Arrian utilised a bus account in the "Anabasis of Alexander"

Greek Writers of Post-Alexandrian Time

The names of Greek writers of Por-Alexandartan tomi are Megasthenese, Deimachus, Dionysios, Patrocles, Timosthene Aelian, Diodorus, Strabo, Mutarch, anonymous Greek writers of Periplus, Arrian & Kosmos/Cosmas Indicopleustes.

Megasthenese

• Megasthenese (350BC-240BC) was a Greek ambassador (envoy) sent by Seleucus Nicator, the Greek king of Persia (Iran) & Babylonia, to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, where he resided up to 6 years (302 BC-296 BC).

• He wrote a book on India called "Indica".

• The original book has been lost, but later writers like Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny (Roman), Arran, Justin, etc preserved the passages from the original book, and these passages have been collected to give an idea as to what Megasthenese thought about India.

• Those passages have been translated into English by McCrindle.

• The information given by Megasthenes is quite detailed on certain points. Among other things, he described-

  • The geographical features of India,

  • The fertility of the country,

  • Pathputra, the capital of Chandragupta Maurya,

  • The absence of slavery in Irulia,

  • The 7 castes of the Indians

  • The rare occurrence of theft in their country.

  • Indian Philosophers, and

  • The part played by Dionysus and Herakles in India

• Scholars have differed in their estimate of Megasthenes' veracity (truthfulness).

• In the present state of our knowledge, perhaps it is best to say that, though Megasthenese related what he saw truthfully, there are also things that he reproduced from hearsay.

• "Indica" was the first book through which ancient Europe knew about India. Megasthenese was the first ambassador who was mentioned in Indian Journeys.

Deimachus

• Deimachus was a Greek ambassador sent by Antiochus I, the ruler of Syria, to the court of Bindusara, the second Mauryan ruler.

• His original work has been lost, but later writers preserved passages from the original book.

Dionysios

• Dionysios was a Greek ambassador sent by Philadelphus (Ptolemy II), the ruler of Egypt, to the court of Bindusara, the second Mauryan ruler.

• His original book is lost; only passages have survived in the writings of later Greek writers.

Patrocles

• Patrocles (250 BC) was a Greek governor of the Province that lies between the Caspian Sea & Indus River under the rulership of Seleucus de Antiochus-I.

• He described India and other countries in his book.

Timosthene

• Timosthene was the naval admiral of Philadelphus (Ptolemy II).

Aelian

• Aelian (100 BC) was a Greek historian.

• His book "A Collection of Miscellaneous History" contains a description of North-West Province.

Diodorus

• Diodorus (died 36 BC) was a famous Greek historian.

• He is known for "Bibliotheca Historica".

• He wrote about India on the basis of descriptions found in Megasthenese.

• His book gives sufficient information regarding Alexander's invasion and India.

Strabo

• Strabo (64 BC- 19 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer.

• His text "Geographia" has an important place in History along with Geography.

• He described the geographical conditions along with the social, religious, and economic conditions of India.

• He mentions the marital relationship between Seleucus Nicator & Sandrokottus (identified as Chandragupta Maurya).

• He mentions the women bodyguards of Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya).

Plutarch

• Plutarch's (45-125 AD) book contains a description of the life of Alexander the Great and a general introduction to India.

• He wrote the "When Androkottus (identified as Chandragupta Maurya) was young, he met Alexander the Great".

The anonymous Greek writer of "Periplus of the Erythrean Sea / Periphus Maris Erythraei", i.e, sailing around the Red Sea (80-115 AD), made a voyage to the Indian coast about 80 AD and he has left a record of its ports, harbours and merchandise.

Periplus gives an idea of the maritime activities of ancient Indians. This text is known as "a guide to sea trade". The unknown author of the "Periplus" claims that Hippalus, a mariner, was knowledgeable about the monsoon winds that shorten the trip from the Red Sea to India and India to the Red Sea.

It is an important foreign source for the Sangam period of South India. It contains a detailed description of trade between the Roman Empire and the regions of South India during the 1st Century AD.

Arrian

• Arrian (130-172 AD) was a famous Greek historian.

• He wrote two books, "Indica" & "Anabasis of Alexander" (history of Alexander's campaigns).

• The account of Arrian has been regarded as the most reliable and authentic account among the accounts of Greek writers concerned with India.

• In this account, Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned as Androkottus.

Kosmos / Cosmos Indicopleustes

• Kosmos / Cosmos Indicopleustes (537-547 AD) was a Greek merchant who later turned into a Buddhist monk.

• He sailed down the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka & India during 537-547 AD. 

• Around 550 AD, he wrote "Christian Topography of the Universe," which contains valuable information about trade between India with Sri Lanka and other countries situated on the Western coast.

Roman/Latin Writers

Pliny (23-99 AD)

• He was a Roman historian.

• He was the contemporary of the Kushana ruler Kanishka.

• He wrote an encyclopedic text, "Naturulis Historica", i.e., Natural History.

• He gives descriptions of India, which are based on information received from Greeks and other Western merchants.

• His text contains a detailed description of animals, plants, and minerals of India, along with the trade relations between Rome (Italy) and India.

Curtius (1 Century AD):

• He was a Roman historian.

• He was the contemporary of Roman emperor Claudius (41-54 AD).

• His book contains sufficient information about Alexander the Great.

Ptolemy (2nd Century AD).

• He was a Roman geographer & historian.

• His popular text Geography contains information about ancient geography and trade between India and Rome (Italy).

Justin (2nd Century AD)

• He was a Roman historian.

• He wrote a text, namely Epitome, i.e, a summary of a written work.

• His text is based on Greek accounts.

• His text contains the description of the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great, along with the power-seizing by Chandragupta Maurya.

• Justin wrote about the role of Chandragupta Maurya in uprooting Greek power from North-West India: India after the death of Alexander had shaken, as it were, the yoke of servitude from its neck and put his governors to death.

• The author of this liberation was Sandrocottus (Sandrocottus is identified as Chandragupta Maurya).

Final Thoughts

The history of Alexander’s invasion of India and the subsequent Indo-Greek interactions is largely preserved through Greek and Roman sources, as Indian records remain silent on this chapter.

Greek writers across three distinct periods—pre-Alexandrian, Alexandrian, and post-Alexandrian—documented their observations and experiences with remarkable detail, offering valuable insights into the political, social, geographical, and economic landscape of ancient India.

Notably, accounts by Megasthenes, Arrian, and others serve as foundational sources for reconstructing the history of Mauryan India and Indo-Greek relations.

Roman authors later expanded on these narratives, enriching our understanding of ancient Indo-Roman trade and diplomacy. Together, these foreign sources remain crucial in bridging the gaps left by indigenous historical records.