Gupta Administration: Society, Economy & Culture

Gupta Administration: Society, Economy & Culture

Gupta Administration

Centralisation vs. Decentralisation

• Centralised control was not as fully realized under the Guptas as it had been under the Mauryas.

• The Guptan administration thus was highly decentralised, and as patrimonial bureaucracy reached its logical conclusion. In hereditary grants, it reflected the quasi-feudal character of the economy.

• It comprised a network of self-governing tribes and tributary kingdoms, and their chiefs often served as representatives of imperial powers.

Imperial Titles and Succession

• Samrat, Badhiraja, and Chakravartin befit their large empire and imperial status.

• The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kitara) came into vogue.

Council of Ministers

• The Gupta kings were assisted by a council of ministers.

• Such a council is implied in the Prayag/Allahabad Pillar Inscription, which speaks of the delight of the "Sabhyas" (members) at the selection of Samudragupta for the throne.

High Officials

• Among the high officers, we may take special notice of the Kumaramatyas and the Sandhivigrahika, who are not known from the inscriptions of earlier periods.

• The Kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high officials under the Guptas.

• It was from them that the Mantris, Senapati, Mahadandanayaka (Minister of Justice), and Sandhivigrahika (Minister of peace and war) were generally chosen.

• The office of Sandhivigrahika first appears under Samudragupta, whose amatya Harisena held this title.

Other Important Officials

• Mahapratihari (the Chief Usher of the Royal Palace),

• Dandapashika (Chief officer of Police Department),

• Vinayasthitisthapak (Chief Officer of Religious Affairs),

• Mahapilupati (Chief of Elephant Corps),

• Mahashivapati (Chief of Cavalry), etc.

Provinces (Bhuktis)

• Important Bhuktis of the Gupta period were:

  • Magadha

  • Barddhaman

  • Pundra Vardhana

  • Teerbhukti (Northern Bihar)

  • Eastern Malwa

  • Western Malwa

  • Saurashtra

City Administration

• The administration of the other city was in the hands of a council (Paura), which consisted of the president of the city corporation, the chief representative of the guild of merchants, a representative of the artisans, and the Chief Accountant.

• Under the Mauryas, the city committee was appointed by the Maurya government. Under the Guptas, it comprised the local representatives.

Decentralisation and Local Governance

• Decentralisation of the administrative authority began during the Gupta period.

• It was during the Gupta rule that the village headmen became more important than before.

Military Organisation

• The Gupta military organisation was feudal (though the emperor had a large standing army).

Law and Order

• In the Gupta period, for the first time, civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated.

Revenue and Taxation

• Gupta kings depended primarily on land revenue, varying from 1/4 to 1/6 of the produce.

• The army was to be fed by the people whenever it passed through the countryside. This tax was called Senabhakta.

• The villagers were also subjected to forced labour called Vishti for serving the royal army and officials.

• The Gupta period also experienced an excess of land grants (Agarhara grants, Devagrahara grants).

• Land grants included the transfer of royal rights over salt and mines, which were under the royal monopoly during the Maurya period.

Society

Varna and the Caste System

• The varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation of castes. This was chiefly due to three factors:

  1. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into the Indian society primarily and were known as Kshatriyas.

  2. There was a large absorption of tribal people into Brahmanical society through land grants. The acculturated tribes were absorbed into the Shudra Varna.

  3. Guilds of craftsmen were often transformed into castes as a result of the decline of trade and urban centres and the localised character of crafts.

Shudras

• The social positions of the Shudras seem to have improved in this period. They were permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas and also worship a new god called Krishna.

Untouchability

• From around the 3rd century onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified, and their number registered a rise.

• Katyayana, a smriti writer of the Gupta period, was the first to use the expression Asprasya to denote the untouchable.

Status of Women

• The position of women deteriorated further.

• Polygamy was common.

• Early marriages were advocated, and often pre-puberty marriages took place.

• The first example of Sati appears in Gupta time in 510 AD in Eran in Madhya Pradesh (Bhanugupta's Eran Inscription – 510 AD).

• Women were denied any right to property except for Stridhana in the form of jewellery and garments.

Religion

• Under the patronage of the Gupta ruler, Vaishnavism became very popular.

• The gods were activated by their unions with the respective consorts. Thus, Laxmi got her association with Vishnu, and Parvati got her association with Shiva.

• This was the period of the evolution of Vajrayanism and Buddhist tantric cults.

• Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period onwards.

Economy

Land Ownership and Survey

• It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive owner of land.

• The most decisive argument in favour of the exclusive state ownership of land is in the Pahadpur Copper Plate inscription of Buddhagupta.

• From the economic standpoint, land was classified into five groups:

  1. Kshetra Bhoomi – Cultivable land

  2. Khila – Waste land

  3. Vastu Bhoomi – Habitable land

  4. Charagah Bhoomi – Pasture land

  5. Aprahata Bhoomi – Forest land

• Land survey is evident from the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and many other inscriptions.

• An officer named Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district.

Coins and Currency

• The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but in gold content, Gupta coins are not as pure as Kushana coins.

• The Guptas also issued a good number of silver coins for local exchange.

• The Gupta copper coins are very few compared to those of Kushanas, which shows that the use of money did not spread to common people.

Trade and Commerce

• Gupta period witnessed a decline in long-distance trade.

• Trade with the Roman Empire declined after the 3rd century AD.

• Indian merchants began to rely more heavily on the South-East Asian trade.

• East Coast Ports: Tamralipti, Chantashala, Kandura

• West Coast Ports: Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan, Cambay

Taxes

• Bhaga: King’s customary share of the produce, normally amounting to 1/6th of the produce, paid by all cultivators.

• Phoga: Periodic supplies of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the villagers had to furnish to the king.

• Bali: Originally a voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. During the Gupta period, it seems to have been an additional and oppressive tax.

• Uparikara: An extra tax levied on all subjects.

Culture

Architecture

• Divided into three categories:

  1. Rock-cut caves: Ajanta and Ellora Group (Maharashtra), Bagh (MP)

  2. Structural Temples:

     • Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi district, UP)

     • Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod, MP)

     • Vishnu and Kankali temple (Tigawa, MP)

     • Parvati temple of Nachna-Kuthara (Panna, MP)

     • Shiva temple of Khoh (Satna, MP)

     • Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP)

     • Laxman temple of Sirpur (Raipur, MP)

     • Vishnu and Varah temples of Eran (MP)

  3. Stupas: Mirpur Khas (Sindh), Dhamek (Sarnath), Ratnagiri (Odisha)

• Evolved Nagara Style (Shikhara Style).

• The temple architecture with the Garbha Griha began with the Guptas.

Sculpture

• Gandhara sculpture declined.

• Benaras, Patliputra, and Mathura became new centres.

• The first images of Vishnu, Shiva, and other gods appeared.

Religion and Literature

Hindu Texts

• Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana, Ramayan, Mahabharata, and  Manu Smriti rewritten.

• Narada, Parashara, Brihaspati, Katyayana Smritis.

Buddhist Texts

• Abhidharma Kosha (Dignaga), Vishudhimagga (Buddhaghosa)

Jain Texts

• Nyayavartam (Sidhsena)

Secular Literature

• Poetry: Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam, Raghuvamsam

• Drama: Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiyam, Abhijnanashakuntalam (Kalidasa); Mudrarakshasa (Visakhadatta)

• Other Works: Kiratarjuniya (Bharavi), Kavyadarsa, Dasakumar Charita (Dandin), Mrichchhakatika (Sudraka), Panchatantra (Vishnu Sharma), Kamasutra (Vatsyayana)

Scientific Literature

• Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta (Aryabhatta), Brahmasiddhanta (Brahmagupta)

• Pancha Siddhantaka, Vrihat Samhita, Vrihat Jataka, Laghu Jataka (Varahamihira)

• Ashtanga Hridaya (Vagbhata), Navanitakam (Dhanvantari), Mahabhaskarya, Laghubhaskarya (Bhaskara), Hastyayurveda (Palkapya)

Gupta Period: Golden Age of Ancient India — Reality or Myth?

Arguments For

1. There were political units; foreign rule was completely removed, and peace and prosperity prevailed.

2. Enlightened character of government, i.e., taxes were light, punishment mild, etc.

3. Revival of Hinduism, but there was tolerance of all other religions.

4. Use of Sanskrit developed, and art and literature flourished during the period.

5. Great personages like Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Dhanavantri, Aryabhatta, Varahamihir, etc. lived during this period.

Arguments Against

1. The existence of too many feudatories.

2. Absence of a large central army and bureaucracy.

3. Development of feudal elements (increasing land grants, serfdom, sub-infeudation, etc.).

4. Decline of trade and guilds.

5. Decline of urban centres.

6. Increasing varna distinction and social disorder.

7. Decline in the status of women