Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)

Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)

Sources of Knowledge

• Rig Veda is the only source of knowledge for this period.

Geographical Area

• From the names of rivers, mountains (Himvant, i.e, Himalaya, Munjavan,t i.e., Hindukush) and the ocean in the RigVeda, we have a clear idea of the geographical area in which Rigvedic people lived.

Rivers in the Rig Veda

• Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers.

• The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers, which include the Ganges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.

Region of Aryans

• Rigvedic people, who called themselves Aryans, were confined in the area which came to be known as SaptiSind, hu I,.e. land of the seven rivers.

• Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu and their five tributaries—Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas, Parushni & Sutuadri, and Saraswati.

Most Mentioned Rivers

According to the Rig Veda:

• The most mentioned river – Sindhu

• The most pious river – Saraswati

• Mention of the Ganges – 1 time

• Mention of Yamuna – 3 times

The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings)

• According to the Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war was the internecine war of the Aryans.

• The Dasrajan war gives the names of ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas, who was the  Bharata king of the Tritsus family.

• The ten kings were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus along with five others viz. Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis, and Vishanins. 

• The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi), in which Sudas emerged victorious.

Political Organization

Hierarchy of Social Units

• The Kula (the family) was the basis of both social and political organisations.

• Above the Kula were the Grama, the Vis, the Jana, and the Rashtra.

• A group of Kula (families) formed a Grama (the village) and so on.

Form of Government

• Regarding the form of government, it was of a patriarchal nature. Monarchy was normal, but non-monarchical polities were also there.

• The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan, and the royal descent was by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture.

• Probably elective monarchy was also known.

Officials and Administration

• Very little is known about ministers of the king.

• The Purohitaov domestic priest was the first-ranking official. 

• He was the king's preceptor, friend, philosopher, and guide.

• Other important royal officials were Senani (army chief) and Gramani (head of the village).

Army and Warfare

• The army consisted of foot soldiers and charioteers.

• Wood, stone, bone, and metals were used in weapons.

• Arrows were tipped with points of metal or poisoned horn.

• References are made to the moving fort (Purcharishnu) and a machine for assaulting strongholds.

Role of the King

• The king had religious duties also.

• He was the upholder of the established order and moral rules.

Assemblies and Administration

• Rig Veda speaks of assemblies such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidath, and  Gana - Sabha was a committee of a few privileged and important individuals.

• Two popular assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, acted as checks on the arbitrary rule of kings.

• Later Vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice.

Law and Order

• Theft, burglary, stealing of cattle, and cheating were some of the crimes prevalent then.

Society

Varnas and Occupation

• The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Shudra.

• This classification of society was based on the professions or occupations of the individuals.

• Teachers and priests were called Brahamanas, rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas, farmers, merchants, and bankers were called Vaishyas, and artisans and labourers were reckoned as Shudras.

• These vocations were followed by persons according to their ability and liking, and the occupations had not become hereditary as they later became.

Flexibility of Profession

• Members of the same family took to different professions and belonged to different vamas, as illustrated by a hymn of the Rig Veda.

• In this hymn, a person says: 'I am a singer; my father is a physician, my mother is a grinder of corn.'

Family Structure and Marriage

• The unit of society was the family, primarily monogamous and patriarchal.

• Child marriage was not in vogue.

• A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (Niyoga).

Property Rights

• The father's property was inherited by his son.

• Right to property existed in respect of movable things like cattle, horses, gold, and ornaments, and also in respect of immovable property like land and house.

Education

• The home of the teacher was the school where he taught the particular sacred texts.

Food Habits

• Milk and its products - curd, butter, and ghee - formed an important part of the diet.

• There is also the mention of grain cooked with milk (Kshira-pakamodanam).

• The meat of fish, birds, and animals was eaten.

Status of Cow

• The cow was already deemed Aghany, i.e., not to be killed.

• Rig Veda prescribes a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows.

Drinks and Lifestyle

• Alcoholic drinks, Sura, and Soma were also consumed.

• Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral people who reckoned their wealth in terms of cows.

Amusements

• Amusements included music, dancing, chariot-racing, and dicing.

• One stanza in the Rig Veda known as the gambler's lament says: 'My wife rejects me and her mother hates me'.

Religion

Nature Worship

• During the Rigvedic time, the Gods worshipped were generally personifications of powers of Nature.

• It was believed that divine powers were capable of conferring both boons and punishments on man.

• Fire was sacred as it was regarded to be the intermediary between man and God.

Gods and Classification

• There were nearly 33 Gods.

• Later day tradition classified them into 3 categories of terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (antarikshasthana), and celestial (dyusthana) god.

1. Terrestrial (Prithvisthaniya): Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati, and rivers

2. Aerial/Intermediate (Antarikahasthaniy): Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Parjanya

3. Celestial (Dyusthaniya): Daus, Surya (In 5 forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan, Vishnu), Varuna, Aditi, Usha, and Asvin
   India Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of the Rigvedic Aryans.

Important Deities

• Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort): The most important god (250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him), who played the role of warlord and was considered to be the rain god.

• Agni: The second most important god (200 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); the fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people.

• Varuna: Personified water, was supposed to uphold 'Rita' or the natural order (Ritasyagopa).

Forms of Surya

• Surya (Sun): God who used to drive daily across the sky in his chariot driven by seven horses.

• Savitri (the god of light): The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her.

• Mitra: A solar god.

• Pushan: The god of marriage; main function - guarding of roads, herdsmen, and straying cattle.

• Vishnu: A god who covered the earth in three steps (Upakrama).

Soma and Other Deities

Soma

• Originally, a plant producing a potent drink during the Agnishtoma sacrifice could be hemp/bhang, called the king of plants, identified later with the moon.

• The 9th mandala of the Rig Veda, which contains 114 hymns, is attributed to Soma.

• That's why it is called 'the Soma Mandala'.

Other Gods/Goddesses

• Rudra (the god of animals)

• Dyaus (the oldest god and the father of the world)

• Yama (the god of death)

• Ashwin/Nastya (the god of health, youth, and immortality)

• Aditl (the great mother of gods)

• Sindhu (river goddess).

Belief System

• Sometimes, gods were visualised as animals, but there was no animal worship.

• The nature of Rigvedic religion was Henotheism, i.e., a belief in many gods but each god standing out in turns as the highest.

• In other words, Rigvedic people worshipped a host of gods, but each in turn was worshipped as the highest god.

• Their religion primarily consisted of the worship of gods with a simple ceremony known as Yajna or sacrifice.

• Sacrifices consisted of offerings of milk, ghee, grain, flesh, and soma.

Economy

Agriculture and Domestication

• The Aryans crossed the nomadic stage.

• Yet, great importance was attached to herds of cattle.

• Various animals were domesticated.

• The Vedic people were probably not familiar with the cat and camel.

• Tiger was not known, but the wild animals like lions, elephants, and boars were known to them.

Trade and Currency

• In all probability, very little trade was there.

• Money and markets were known, but they were not extensively used.

• Cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange.

• Coins were not known.

Occupational Specialization

• Complexity in producing goods made its appearance.

• Men of various professions, like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, potters, and grinders of corn, were there.

Medicine and Healing

• The art of healing wounds and curing diseases was in existence.

• There were experts in surgery.

• Along with herbs and drugs, charms and spells were regarded as having equally potent potential in healing diseases.

• OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture 1500 BC - 1000 BC

Final Thoughts

The Rig Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE) laid the early foundations of Indian civilization, showcasing a society rooted in tribal and patriarchal structures with monarchical governance.

The Sapta Sindhu region formed the geographical heartland, enriched by the mention of sacred rivers like Sindhu and Saraswati. Society followed a varna system based on occupation, though social mobility was still possible.

The economy was largely pastoral and agrarian, with cattle as the primary measure of wealth, and little dependence on trade or currency.

Religion emphasized nature worship, ritual sacrifices (Yajnas), and belief in multiple deities through Henotheism. With developments in medicine, education, law, and cultural expression, the Rig Vedic Age was a significant phase in shaping early Vedic identity, values, and institutions.