Historical Sources (Literary & Archaeological Source)

Historical Sources (Literary & Archaeological Source)

Historical sources provide information about events of the past. They are mainly of two types:

• Literary Sources—These are written records such as religious texts, historical writings, and biographies.

• Archaeological Sources—These include physical remains like inscriptions, coins, tools, monuments, and artifacts. Archaeological sources are often considered more reliable, as they are harder to alter over time.

Indigenous Literary Sources

Indigenous literary sources are texts created within India and are broadly classified into

• Religious Texts—Including Hindu (Vedic and Puranic texts), Buddhist (Tripitakas, Jatakas), and Jain (Agamas) literature.

• Secular Texts—Including historical accounts, semi-historical writings, and royal biographies such as the Rajatarangini.

Religious Texts

• Hindu Texts:

  • The Vedas (the oldest scriptures) tell about rituals and early kings.

  • Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata show ancient society and kingdoms.

  • Puranas mix stories and history.

• Buddhist Texts:

  • Tripitaka includes rules for monks and Buddha’s teachings.

  • Jataka Tales tell stories of Buddha’s past lives and ancient culture.

• Jain Texts:

  • Written in the 6th century AD, it focuses on Jain monks, Mahavira’s life, and ancient society.

Secular Texts

• History Books:

  • Rajatarangini tells the history of Kashmir’s kings.

  • Other regional texts cover Gujarat and Sindh.

• Semi-Historical Texts:

  • Works like Panini’s grammar and plays by Kalidasa include history and politics.

• Biographies:

  • Stories praising kings like Harshavardhana, Prithviraja, and others, mixing fact with legend.

Foreign Literary Sources

Foreign travelers, merchants, ambassadors, and historians from Greece, China, Tibet, and Arabia contributed valuable accounts that help reconstruct ancient Indian history and chronology.

Greek Writers

• Early explorers like Scylax and Herodotus described India mostly through Persian ties.

• Megasthenes, ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya, wrote detailed accounts in Indica.

• Other Greek writers (e.g., Arrian, Strabo, Plutarch) recorded Alexander’s invasion and Indian society.

• Periplus (1st century AD) described maritime trade with Rome.

• Cosmos Indicopleustes wrote on Indian Ocean trade (6th century AD).

Chinese Writers

• Sima Qian first mentioned India.

• Pilgrims like Fa-hien and Hiuen Tsang traveled to India, documenting its culture, religion, and history.

• Itsing and others added info on Buddhism and Indian society.

• Later writers noted Indian rulers and praised regions like Bengal.

Tibetan Writers

• Taranath (12th C.): Historian, wrote about ancient India.

• Dharmaswamy (13th C.): Studied at Nalanda.

Arabian Writers

• Sulaiman (851 AD): Arab merchant, described Indian kings and trade.

• Ibn Khurdadhbih (864 AD): Noted India’s caste system.

• Al-Biladuri (d. 892): Wrote on the Arab conquest of Sindh.

• Al Masudi (d. 956): Described Indian rulers and trade.

• Ibn Hawkal (943-79): Mapped India’s boundaries.

• Alberuni (973-1048): Famous Indologist; detailed Indian culture.

• Ibn Batuta (1304-69): Moroccan traveler; wrote on the Delhi Sultanate and South India.

• Sihab al Dinumari (1348): Wrote on India’s society from others’ reports.

• Abdurrazzaq (1413-82): Ambassador to Vijayanagara; praised its grandeur and trade.

Archaeological Sources

Early Phase

• Archaeology in India began with Europeans.

• Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society (1784).

• James Princep deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in 1837, enabling the reading of Ashokan inscriptions.

• George Turnour identified Ashoka as “Piyadassi” from Buddhist texts.

Cunningham & ASI

• Sir Alexander Cunningham, known as the Father of Indian Archaeology, founded the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861.

• He conducted explorations and excavations till 1885.

• A gap followed until Lord Curzon revived ASI in 1902, appointing Sir John Marshall as director-general.

Major Discoveries

Under Marshall’s leadership:

• Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa (1921)

• R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-Daro (1922)

These led to the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating Indian civilization back to 2500 BCE.

Successors

Key successors:

• H. Hargreaves

• Daya Ram Sahni

• K.N. Dixit

• Mortimer Wheeler.

Sources

• Inscriptions (Epigraphy)

• Coins (Numismatics)

• Monuments

Foreign Inscriptions: Behistun, Naqsh-i-Rustam (Persian).

Indigenous: Ashokan inscriptions (first deciphered), Piprahwa, Barli.