Indian Sculpture History

Indian Sculpture History

The art of sculpting (i.e., making objects from metal, stone, wood, clay, etc.) is called 'sculpture.' The study of images/statues is known as iconography.

In India, the story of sculpture begins with the Harappan civilization.

Harappan Sculpture

The important statues/figures of Harappan sculpture are

• Mohenjo-Daro: Dancing girl, standing woman, buffalo, ram, etc.

• Harappa: Bullock cart, one-bull cart, dog attacking deer, etc.

• Chanhudaro: Bullock cart, one-bull cart, etc.

• Lothal: Ox, dog, rabbit, bird, etc.

• Kalibangan: Bull etc.

• Mohenjo-Daro: Priest/bearded man, male statue, ram, etc.

• Harappa: Male torso, male dancer.

Subject of Terracottas:

• Man-woman (viz., Matridevi, i.e., Mother Goddess)

• Animals-birds (viz., bull, Buffalo, Duck, Peacock)

The bronze figure of a dancing girl (Mohenjo-Daro) indicates that the Harappans knew the art of bronze casting in CIRE PERDUE, i.e., the lost wax process—a figure is first made in wax, which is then covered with a coating of clay, which is then dried and heated to run out the wax. The hollow is thus filled with molten metal, which takes the shape of the original object.

Mauryan Sculpture

The specimens of Mauryan sculpture are found in the forms of pillars, stone statues, and terracottas.

Pillars / Ashokan Pillars

The best example of Mauryan art is the monolithic pillar, also known as the Ashokan pillar/Ashok's Lat, on the top of which the animal figure is joined.

These pillars are admired throughout the world for their wonderful polish and animal figures.

• The number of Ashokan pillars would have been 30, out of which 15 remain and 15 have been ruined.

• These pillars are of two types—with inscription & without inscription.

Pillars with Inscriptions:

• Meerut-Delhi, Topara-Delhi, Allahabad, Laurianandangarh, Lauriaareraj, Sanchi, Sarnath, Rummindei, and Nigali Sagar (Nigliva).

Pillars without Inscriptions:

• Rampurva, Kosambi, Basarh etc.

Parts of Pillars

The pillar has two parts—a tapering shaft & capital.

1. Tapering Shaft (Column):

   • It is carved from a single stone (monolithic).

   • The polish on it is so fine that it still shines like a mirror.

2. Capital:

   • It is made separately and joined to the round & tapering shaft by a copper dowel.

   • Generally, it contains three parts—a bell-shaped inverted lotus (at the base), an abacus (in the middle), and a crown (on the top).

   • In its base, the bell-shaped inverted lotus has been made. Various animals, birds, and the Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Law) are engraved on the abacus.

   • Above the ornamented abacus, animal figures (like lions, bulls, elephants, etc.) are crowned.

   • The grand beauty of the Ashokan pillar is mainly due to the animal figure.

Among these capitals, the lion capital of Sarnath is the best, which has been adopted as a State Emblem (Raj Chihn) by the Government of India. The wheel (Chakra), engraved at the middle part (abacus) of the capital (below the lion figure and above the inverted lotus), is our National Symbol (Rashtriya Pratik).

National Emblem

The capital part of the lion capital of Sarnath originally consisted of 4 parts:

1. A lotus bell base

2. An abacus on the bell base with 4 chakras (wheels) & 4 animals [Bull & Horse (visible); Lion & Elephant (invisible)] proceeding clockwise

3. Figures of 4 lions back-to-back facing 4 cardinal directions

4. The crowning element, Chakra (a large wheel), is also a part of this pillar (now broken, kept in the Sarnath museum)

Two parts of the capital—the lotus base (bottom part) and the crowning wheel (top part)—have been rejected. Two parts of the capital—the abacus and figures of 4 lions (middle parts)—have been selected for the National Emblem.

Also, a line, Satyameva Jayate (truth alone triumphs), has been taken from the Mundak Upanishad and placed below the abacus. It is called the National Motto.

In this way, two parts of the Sarnath lion capital (abacus & 4 lions) and one line, Satyameva Jayate, from the Mundak Upanishad make the National Emblem of India.

This National Emblem was adopted on 26 January 1950.

These pillars were placed either in sacred enclosures or in the vicinity of towns.

Construction of pillars was made mostly by brown sandstone mined from Chunar (Mirzapur dist., U.P.). Only a few pillars were constructed from red and white sandstone mined from Mathura.

Stone Statues

The Mauryan stone statues are found in the form of Yaksha-Yakshini statues.

• Yaksha – a demi-god, protector of nature

• Yakshini – a demi-goddess, protector of nature

Finding places of Yaksha-Yakshini statues: Kurukshetra, Mehrauli, Besnagar, Vidisha, Mathura, Varanasi, Patna, Sishupalgarh (Odisha), etc.

Notable statues are:

• Yaksha (Manibhadra) of Parkham village (Mathura)

• Timukha Yaksha (Varanasi)

• Yakshini/Yakshi of Besnagar (Vidisha, M.P.)

• Chanwarbeerer Yakshini of Didarganj (Patna, Bihar)

Rock-cut statue of an Elephant is found at Dhauli (Odisha).

Terracottas

Many terracottas (clay figurines) of the Mauryan period are also available.

• Figurines of various animals and birds, men & women have been found from various places, which have been made by the fingers of hand or by casting them in a mold.

Notable terracotta figurines:

• Laughing boy of Didarganj (Patna)

• Female Dancer of Bulandibagh (Patna)

Post-Mauryan Sculpture

During the Post-Mauryan period, 3 styles (schools) of sculpture developed –

1. Amaravati Style

2. Gandhar Style

3. Mathura Style

1. Amaravati Style (Satvahana)

• Amaravati is a place situated on the bank of the Krishna River in the Guntoor district of Andhra Pradesh.

• Its old name is Dhanykatakam/Dharnikot.

• A separate style of sculpture was developed here in the Eastern Deccan (between the Krishna & Godavari rivers), which is called the Amaravati style.

Period: Emerged in 200 BC and continued till 400 AD (about 6 centuries).

Patronage: Satvahana rulers first, then Ikshvaku rulers, also chieftains, officers & businessmen.

Prime example: Amaravati Buddhist Stupa – one of the most important religious sculptures in the world.

• Figures concerned with events from Buddha's life and stories of Buddha's previous births (Jatak Katha) are found on this stupa.

• Notable Jataka stories: Chhadanta, Mahakavi, Vidurpundita, Ruru, Sibi, Vessantara, Sama Jataka.

• The stupa was discovered by Colin Mackenzie in 1797.

• White marble is used as a base material.

In Amaravati Style:

• Buddha expressed mostly through symbols (Swastik, Agnistambh, etc.), only 2–3 times in human form.

• This is the earliest example of Buddha’s statue in human form (100 BC – 100 AD).

• Beautiful coexistence of man and nature, along with depiction of animals & flowers.

Conclusion: The Amaravati style was lively, full of devotion, and marked the transition period between the earlier Sanchi-Bharahut and later Gandhar-Mathura style.

2. Gandhar Style (Saka-Kushana)

• Developed in the Gandhar region (north-western India + parts of Afghanistan).

• Period: 50 BC to the 5th century AD.

• Patrons: Mainly Saka & Kushana rulers, reached climax during Kanishka.

Features:

• Indian themes expressed in a Greek way (Indo-Greek/Indo-Helena/Graceo-Roman style).

• Main centres: Tusila, Pushkalawati, Nagarhar, Swat valley, Kapishi, Bamiyan, Bactria. Later: Moharmoradu, Jaulian, etc.

• Grey stone & slate used as base material.

• Statues of Buddha & Bodhisattva (based on Jataka tales).

Bodhisattva statues: Mainly Maitreyas, some of Avalokiteshwar & Padmapani.

Goddess statues: Hariti (Persian), Ethina (Roman), Roma (Roman).

Depiction style:

• Special attention to the accurate human body.

• Buddha is like the Greek god Apollo (curly hair, mustache, turban).

• Robes like a Roman toga.

• Excessive ornamentation.

• Introduction of Halo (circular ring of light behind the deity’s head).

Impact: Gandhar style = fusion of Indian + Greek art → later spread to Chinese Turkistan, Mongolia, China, Korea & Japan.

3. Mathura Style (Saka-Kushana)

• Developed in the Mathura region.

• Credit for the beginning goes to Jain followers.

• Period: 1st to 3rd century AD.

• Material: Red spotted sandstone.

Subjects covered:

• Buddhism: Buddha & Bodhisattva statues in Yakshmurti (standing) and Yogimurti (sitting).

• Jainism: Teerthankaras, Kayotsarg mudra, Padmasan mudra, Aayagpatt (votive stone slabs). Major site: Kankali Tila (Mathura).

• Hinduism:

  • Vaishnavite: Vishnu, Lakshmi, Panch Vrishniveer, Sankarshan, Balram.

  • Shaivite: Shiva, Parvati, Ganesh, Kartikeya.

  • Others: Brahma, Surya, Kuber, Gajalakshmi, Sapt-Matrika, Katyayani, Mahishasurmardini, Vasundhara, Agni, Yaksha, Ayudhpurush,  etc.

Statues of rulers: Chastan (Saka), Vim Kadphises (Kushana), Kanishka (Kushana).

• Headless statue of Kanishka is notable – depicted in military attire, knee-length coat, full boots, mace in right hand, sword hilt in left.

Overall:

• Mathura style = originality, beauty, creative diversity.

• Gandhar = realistic (materialistic & rationalist).

• Mathura = idealistic (spiritual & emotionalist).

• Mathura style, almost free from foreign influence, continued the earlier Sanchi-Bharhut tradition.

Gupta Sculpture

Indian sculpture developed greatly during the Gupta period.
Gupta sculpture art is known as 'Classical Art'.

Statues of the Gupta period are concerned with the Brahmanic (Hindu) & Buddhist religion.

Statues Concerned with Brahmanic (Hindu) Religion

Brahmanic statues are categorized into 2 categories:

1. Vaishnavite

• Gupta rulers were supporters of Vaishnavism. Hence, numerous statues of Lord Vishnu were made during their time.

• Vishnu idols of the Gupta period are four-armed (Chaturbhuji).

• Vishnu idols of Mathura, Eran, and Deogarh are notable.

• Among these, the Vishnu idols of the Dasawatar temple (Deogarh) are the most famous.

• Statues that depicted Varah incarnation of Vishnu, were made in this period.

• A giant Varah idol was made at the Varah cave temple of Udaygiri, in which Varah is depicted lifting the earth with his teeth.

2. Shaivite

• Shaivite statues were also made in the Gupta period.

• The statue of Ardhanarishwar (half male-half female) form was first made in this period.

• The one-faced (Ekmukhi) and four-faced (Chaturmukhi) Linga of Shiva was first made during this period.

  • Ekmukhi Shiv Linga idol was found in Bhumara and Khoh.

  • Chaturmukhi Shivlinga was found in Karamdanda (Faizabad).

• Such idols of Shiva are known as Mukhlinga.

• The construction of Mukhlingas is attractive and artful.

Statues Concerned with the Buddhist Religion

• The Buddha statues made in the Gupta period are free from the influence of the Gandhar style.

• The Halo of Buddha statues of the Kushana period was plain, while the Halo of Buddha statues of the Gupta period was ornate.

Famous Buddha Statues of the Gupta Age

1. A stone statue of Buddha found in Mathura (at present in the Mathura Museum).

2. A stone statue of Buddha found in Sarnath (at present in the Sarnath museum).

3. Copper statue of Buddha found in Sultanganj, Bihar (at present in the Birmingham Museum, England).

Final Thoughts

Sculpture in India has had a long and fascinating journey, beginning with the Harappan civilization, where terracotta figurines, bullock carts, and the famous Dancing Girl show early mastery of art and bronze casting.

The Mauryan period brought refinement with the grand Ashokan pillars, celebrated for their polish and crowned with animal figures, the most famous being the Sarnath Lion Capital, now India’s National Emblem. Alongside, statues of Yaksha and Yakshini reflected people’s faith in nature’s guardians, while terracotta figurines depicted everyday life.

In the Post-Mauryan era, sculpture branched into three distinct schools. The Amaravati style in Andhra Pradesh created lively depictions of Buddha’s life and Jataka tales, often through symbolic art. The Gandhar style, influenced by Greek and Roman traditions, portrayed Buddha with curly hair, robes, and a divine presence, merging Indian themes with Western realism. The Mathura style, rooted in local traditions, celebrated Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu figures with powerful symbolism and originality, free from foreign influence.

Together, these styles show how Indian sculpture evolved—spiritual yet human, blending art, religion, and daily life into timeless forms.