India's First War of Freedom Struggle 1857

The Revolt of 1857 in an important landmark in the history of India, which occurred during the governor-generalship of Lord Canning. 

Causes of the Revolt

1. Political Causes

• Nana Sahib was refused a pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.

• Avadh was annexed in 1856, on charges of mal-administration.

• Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Sambhalpur were annexed owing to the Doctrine of Lapse.

2. Economic Causes

• Heavy taxation

• Forcible evictions

• Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products.

• Destruction of traditional handicrafts has hit peasants and artisans.

3. Socio-Religious Causes

• British social reforms (abolition of sati, 1829; legalisation of widow remarriage, 185,6, etc.) hurt the sentiments of orthodox and conservative people.

4. Military Causes

• Discrimination against Indian soldiers.

5. Immediate Cause

• The introduction of the Enfield rifles, whose cartridges were said to have a greased cover made of beef and pork, sparked off the revolt.

The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

• On March 29, 1857, an Indian sepoy of 34 Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed two British officers—Hugeson and Baugh—on parade at Barrackpore (near Calcutta).

• The Indian soldiers present refused to obey orders to arrest Mangal Pandey. However, he was later arrested and hanged.

• The mutiny started at Meerut on 10th May 1857.

• The occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased cartridges.

• The soldiers, along with other groups of civilians, went on a rampage shouting 'Maro Firangi ko'.

• They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses, and marched to Delhi after sunset.

• The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning (i.e., 11th May) in Delhi was a signal to the local soldiers who, in turn, revolted, seized the city, and proclaimed the 82-year-old Bahadur Shah'Zafar as Shahenshah-i-Hindustan (i.e., Emperor of India).

Main Centres of the Revolt

• Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to different parts of India (esp. all over North India, Central India, and Western India).

• South remained quiet, and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.

Note on Leaders and Their Fate

• Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.

• His sons were dead.

• Nana Sahib (original name - Dhundhu Pant), Begum Hazrat Mahal, and Khan Bahadur Kha escaped to Nepal.

• Tantiya Tope (original name - Ramchandra Pandurang) was captured and executed on 15th April, 1859.

• Rani Laxmi Bai died on the battlefield.

• Kuer Singh was wounded and died on 26 April 1858.

Sir Hugh Rose described Laxmi Bai as "the best and bravest military leader of the rebel."

Other Important Leaders

• Khan Bahadur Khan (Bareilly)

• Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah alias Danka Shah (Faizabad)

• Azimullah Khan (Fatehpur)

• Devi Singh (Mathura)

• Kadam Singh (Merrut)

Causes of the Failure of the Revolt

1. Disunity among Indians and poor organisation

2. Lack of complete nationalism – Scindias, Holkars, Nizam, and others actively helped the British

3. Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars, and other classes

4. Many had different motives for participating in the revolt

Significance of the Revolt

• The important element in the revolt lay in Hindu-Muslim unity.

• People exhibited patriotic sentiment without any touch of communal feelings.

• It no doubt began as a mutiny of soldiers, but soon turned into a revolt against British rule in general.

Nature of the Revolt of 1857

1. Sepoy Mutiny View

• Syed Ahmed Khan, Munshi Jeevan Lal, and Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya (Contemporary Historians)

• Stenley (Secretary of State for India), John Lawrence, John Seeley, Malleson, R.C. Mazumdar

2. National Struggle/War of Independence View

• Benjamin Disraeli

• Karl Marx

• V.D. Savarkar

• K.M. Pannikar

• Ishwari Prasad

• A.L. Shrivastava

• Tarachand

3. Other Views

• Racial Struggle / Black-White Struggle – Medley

• Religious Struggle / Hindu-Muslim-Christian Struggle – Rees

• Civilisation-Barbarism Conflict / English-Indian Conflict – T.R. Holmes

• Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy against Christians – Outram and Taylor

Important Books on the 1857 Revolt

Opinions on the 1857 Revolt

• “It was wholly unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny with no native leadership and no popular support." – John Seeley

• "The so-called First National War of Independence is neither 'First', nor 'National', nor 'a war of Independence.” – R.C. Mazumdar

• "A national revolt rooted in deep mistrust." – Benjamin Disraeli (Opposition Leader)

• "The Revolt of 1857 was 'the First War of Independence.'" – V.D. Savarkar

• "What began as a fight for religion ended as a war for independence." – S.N. Sen

Impact of the Revolt of 1857

1. In August 1858, the British parliament passed an act that put an end to the rule of the Company.

2. The control of the British government in India was transferred from the Company to the British Crown.

3. A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of State for India, was made responsible for the governance of India.

4. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy, who was also the representative of the monarch.

5. Marked the end of British Imperialism, and the Princely States were assured against annexation. The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.

6. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule.

7. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and the increase of white soldiers in the army.

8. The total expense of the suppression was thrown on the Indian people.

9. The revolt had brought in its trail a difficult financial problem.

   • The Government was burdened with a heavy debt.

   • Two British financial experts, James Wilson and Samuel Leing, cut down government expenditure and introduced:

     • Income Tax

     • Paper Currency

     • Annual Budget

   • With these measures, the deficit was converted into a surplus by 1864.

It has been said that Julius Caesar dead was more powerful than Julius Caesar alive. The same may be said about the Revolt of 1857.
Whatever might have been its original character, it soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British Empire in India and remained a shining star for the rise and growth of the Indian national movement.

Final Thoughts

The Revolt of 1857 stands as a landmark event in Indian history, marking the first large-scale resistance against British colonial rule. Though it ultimately failed due to a lack of unity, poor coordination, and limited resources, it ignited a lasting spirit of nationalism.

The unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims during the uprising is a significant symbol of India’s collective identity and shared struggle. The revolt brought major administrative and military changes, ending East India Company rule and transferring power to the British Crown.

It also served as a crucial lesson and inspiration for future freedom fighters. While historians continue to debate its nature, its impact on shaping India's independence movement is undeniable.