Mughal Period (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)

Mughal Period (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)

Babur: 1526-30

• The foundation of the Mughal rule in India was laid by Babur in 1526.
• He was a descendant of Timur (from the side of his father) and Chengiz Khan (from the side of his mother.
• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526 and established Mughal, dynasty which lasted till the establishment of British rule in India.
• In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar at Khanwa,
• In 1528, he defeated Medini Rai of Chaneri at Chanderi.
• In 1529, he defeated Muhammad Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) at Ghaghra.
• In 1530, he died at Agra. His tomb is at Kabul.
• He adopted Tughluma and flanking party system and was the first to use gunpowder and artillery in India.
• He wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki in which he gives an excellent account of India and his empire. Tuzuk-i-Baburi was translated into Persian (named Babumama)by Abdur Rahim Khanekhana and in English by Madam Bevridge.
• He compiled two anthologies of poems, Diwan (in Turki) and Mubaiyan (in Persian). He also wrote Risa-i-Usaz or letters of Babur.

Humayun : 1530-40 and 1555-56

• He was the son of Babur and ascended the throne in 1530. His succession was challenged by his brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari alongwith the Afghans.
• He fought two battles against SherShah at Chausa (1539)and at Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) and was completely defeated by him.
• He escaped to Iran where he passed 12 years of his life in exile.
• After Sher Shah's death Humayun invaded India in 1555 and defeated his brothers the Afghans. He once again became the ruler of India.
• He died while climbing down the stairs of his library (at Din Panah) in 1556 and was buried in Delhi. British orienatalist Lane Poole remarked on Humayun’s misfortune : "Humayun tumbled through life, and he tumbled out of it".
• His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biography Humayunama.
• He built Din Panah at Delhi as his second capital.

Sur Empire (Second Afghan Empire): 1540-55

Sher Shah: 1540-45

• He was the son of Hasan Khan, the Jagirdar of Sasaram Ibrahim Lodhi transferred his father's jagir to him.
• In 1527-28, he joined Babur's service and then returned to South Bihar as deputy governor and guardian of the minor king Jalal Khan Lohani, son of Bahar Khan Lohani.

• Sher Shah usurps throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. He gained Chunar by marrying Lad Malika, the widow of governor of Chunar Fort.
• In 1539, he defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa and assumed the title Sher Shah as emperor.
• In 1540, he defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj/ Bilgram and annexed Kannauj.
• As an emperor, he conquested Malwa (1542), Ranthambhor (1542), Raisin (1543), Rajputana-annexation of Marwar (1542), Chittor (1544) and Kalinjar (1545). He died in 1545 while conquesting Kalinjar. During his brief reign of 5 years he introduced a brilliant administration, land revenue policy and several other measures to improve the economic conditions of his subjects.
• He issued the coin called Rupia and fixed standard weights and measures all over the empire.
• He also improved communications by building several highways. He built the Grand Trunk Road (G. T. Road), that runs from Calcutta to Peshawar.
• He set up cantonment in various parts of his empire and strong garrison was posted in each cantonments.
• He introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes. Muqaddams were punished for failure to find culprits.
• Land was measured and 1 /3rd of the average was fixed as land tax. The peasant was given a patta (title deed) and a qabuliyat (deed of agreement) which fixed the peasant's rights and taxes. Zamindars were removed and the taxes were directly collected.
• He built Purana Quila at Delhi.
• He was buried in Sasaram.
• Sher Shah was succeeded by Islam Shah (1545-54); Islam Shah by Muhammad Adil Shah (1554-55).

Akbar: 1556-1605

• Akbar, the eldest son of Humayun, ascended the throne under the title of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghaz: at the young age of 14 at Kalanaur, Punjab and his tutor Bairam Khan was appointed as the regent.
• Second Battle of Panipat (5 Nov., 1556) was fought between Hemu (the Hindu General of Muhammad Adil Shah) and Bairam Khan (the regent of Akbar). Hemu was defeated, captured and slain by Bairam Khan.
• This war ended the Mughal-Afghan contest for the throne of Delhi in favour of the Mughals and enabled Akbar to reoccupy Delhi and Agra.
• Akbar ended the regency of Bairam Khan in 1560 and at the age of 18 assumed the reigns of the kingdom. Akbar was under the influence of Maham Anga and Adham Khan junta from 1560 to 1562. [Petticoat Govt.: 1560-62]
• In his bid to expand his empire he conquered various provincial states.
• The Rajputa kingdom of Mewar put up a fierce defence under Rana Uday Singh (1537-72) and his son Rana Pratap (1572-97).
• Akbar tried to win over the Rajputas wherever possible and inducted Rajputa kings into Mughal service and treated them at par with Mughal nobility. By marrying Harakha Bai, daughter of Bharmal/Biharimal (Kutchhwaha Rajputa Ruler of Amer, Capital-Jaipur) in 1562. Akbar displayed his secular policy with the Hindus. Most of the Rajputa Kings recognised the supremacy of Akbar except Rana Pratap Singh and his son Amar Singh (Sisodiya Rajputas of Mewar, Capital-Chittor).
• The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was fought between Rana Pratap of Mewar and Mughal army led by Man Singh of Amer. Rana Pratap was defeated but he did not submit and continued the struggle.

Akbar’s Conquests

• As a revolt against the orthodoxy and bigotry of religious priests, Akbar proclaimed a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, in 1581. The new religion was based on a synthesis of values taken from several religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism and Christianity. It did not recognize the prophet, Birbal was the only Hindu who followed this new religion. Din-i-Ilahi, however, did not become popular.
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Lahore Fort and Allahabad Fort and Humayun's Tomb at Delhi. Fatehpur Sikri, place near Agra-it is said that Akbar had no son for a long time. Sheikh Salim Chisti, a Sufi saint blessed Akbar with a son who was named Salim/ Sheikho Baba (Jahangir). In honour of Salim Chisti, Akbar shifted his court from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri.
• He was a patron of art and in his court many persons flourished.

Navaratna i.e. nine jewels of Akbar:

1. Birbal (administrator)
2. Abul Fazl (scholar and statesman)
3. Faizi (scholar and statesman, brother of Abul Fazl)
4. Todarmal (Finance Minister, Dahsala Bandobast/ Jabti)
5. Bhagwandas (Mansabdar, son of Bharmal)
6. Man Singh (Mansabdar, Grandson of Bharmal)
7. Tansen (Musician)
8. Abdur Rahim Khanekhana (Statesman, Hindi poet)
9. Mulla Do Pyaja.

• Tulsidas ('Ramcharitamanas') also lived during Akbar's period.
• When Akbar died, he was buried at Sikandara near Agra. Akbar is considered 'the real founder of the Mughal empire' in India.
• He was the first Mughal ruler who divorced religion from politics.
• Birbal was killed in the battle with the Yusufzai Tribe
• Abul Fazl was murdered by Bir Singh Bundela (1601).
• Akbar gave Mughal India one official language (Persian).

Jahangir: 1605-27

• Salim, son of Akbar, came to the throne after Akbar's death in 1605. He issued 12 ordinances.
• He is known for his strict administration of justice. He established Zanjir-i-Adal (i.e. Chain of Justice) at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice.
• In 1611, Jahangir married Mihar-un-nisa, widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman of Bengal. Later on she was given the title Nurjahan. Nurjahan exercised tremendous influence over the state affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum.
• Jahangir issued coins jointly in Nurjahan's name and his own.
• Jahangir also married Manma ti/Jaga t Gosai/JodhaBai of Marwar and a Kachhwaha princess.
• In 1608, Captain William Hawkins, a representative of East India Company came to Jahangir's court. He was given the mansab of 400. In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe, an ambassador of King James I of England also came to his court. Though initially Jahangir resisted, later on hegranted permission to the English to establish a trading port at Surat.
• A political triumph during Jahangir's reign was the submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar (1615), Jahangir captured the strong fort of Kangara (1620), A part of Ahmadnagar was also annexed. Malik Amber ceded back to the Mughals the territory of Balaghat (Maharashtra).
• His reign was marked by several revolts. His son Khusrau, who received patronage of 5th Sikh Guru Arjun Dev revolted against Jahangir (1605). Arjun Dev, was later sentenced to death for his blessing to the rebel prince (1606). During his last period, Khurram (Shahjahan), son of Jahangir, and Mahavat Khan, military general of Jahangir also revolted (Khurram 1622-25and Mahavat Khan : 1626-27).
• He wrote his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
• He was buried in Lahore.

Shahjahan: 1628-58

• Mother's name-Jagat Gosai/Jodha Bai (daughter of Raja Jagat Singh).
• Shahjahan ascended the throne in 1628 after his Satnami father's death.
• He was best known for his Deccan and foreign policies The first thing that he had to face was revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujhar Singh Bundela of Orchha 1628-35) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi, the governor of Deccan : 1629-31)
• Three years after his accession, his beloved wife Mumtaj Mahal (original name-Arzumand Bano) died in 1631. To perpetuate her memory he built the Ta Mahal at Agra in 1632-53.
• In 1631-32, he defeated the Portuguese.
• In addition to Jahangir's empire, Nizam Shahi's dynash of Ahmadnagar was brought under Mughal control (1633) by Shahjahan. The Deccan Sultanate of Bijapur and Golconda accepted his suzerainty in 1636.
• He sent his army to Balkh in order to secure the defence of North-Western India (1647). Shahjahan who had recovered Kandhar (Afghanistan) in 1638 from the Iranians lost it again in 1647 despite three campaign under prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara.
• Shahjahan's reign is described by French traveller Bernier and Ta vernier and the Italian traveller Nicoli Manucci. Peter Mundi described the famine that occured during Shahjahan's time.
• Shahjahan's reign is said to have marked the pinnacle of the Mughal dynasty and empire. He is known for the promotion of art, culture and architecture during his time. The Red Fort, Jama Masjid and Taj Mahal are some of the magnificent structures built during his reign.
• Shahjahan's failing health set off the war of succession among his four sons in 1657. Aurangzeb emerged the victor who crowned himself in July 1658. Shahjahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in the Agra Fortwhere he died in captivity in 1666. He was buried at Taj (Agra).

Aurangzeb: 1658-1707

• Aurangzeb defeated Dara at Dharmat (1658), Samugarh (1658) and Deorai in which Samugarh was the decisive one and Deorai was the last one.
• After victory, Aurangzeb was crowned at Delhi under the title Alamgir. He ruled for 50 years till his death in Feb., 1707 in Ahmadnagar.

Revolts During Auragzeb’s reign

• Aurangzeb left the North in 1682 and for the next 25 years (1682-1707) made desperate bids to crush the Marathas.
• Shivaji was the most powerful Maratha king and an arch enemy of Aurangzeb. When Aurangzeb could not eliminate him, he conspired in 1665 with Jai Singh of Amber, a Rajput, to eliminate Shivaji. On an assurance given by Jai Singh, Shivaji visited Aurangzeb's court. Shivaji was imprisoned by Aurangzeb but he managed to escape and in 1674 proclaimed himself an independent monarch. He died in 1680 and was succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who was executed by Aurangzeb in 1689. Sambhaji was succeeded by his brother Rajaram and after his death in 1700, his widow Tarabai carried on the movements.
• The mughal conquests reached a climax during Aurangzeb's reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686 and 1687, respectively.
• Aurangzeb died in 1707. He was buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad).
• He was called Zinda Pir, the living saint.
• Jaziya was re-introduced. However, the Hindu Mansabdars maintained their high proportion during his rule.
• Decline of the Mughal Empire: The weak and unworthy successors of Aurangzeb cared not a jot for the glorious Mughal empire which Babar had so heroically founded, Humayun so bravely defended and Akabar so wisely consolidated. After Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire rapidly declined. Important causes of the decline.
• During the first 23 years of the rule(1658-81) Aurangazeb concentrated on North India. During this period the Marathas under Shivaji rose to power and were a force to reckon with.
• Aurangzeb captured Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of Sikhs in 1675 and executed him when he refused to embrace Islam. The 10th and last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobirtd Singh, son of Guru Teg Bahadur, organised his followers into community of warriors called Khalsa to fight the Muslim tyranny and avenge the killing of his father. Guru Gobind Singh was, however assassinated in 1708 by an Afghan at Nander in Deccan. Banda Bahadur, a trusted disciple of Guru Gobind Singh continued the war against Mughals. The original name of Banda Bahadur was Lachhman Dev. After becoming a saint he was named Madho Das. Finally he was named Banda Bahadur by Guru Govind Singh were: 1 Aurangzeb's Rajputa, Deccan and religious policies 2 Weak successors who were incompetent both as administrators and generals 3. Wars of succession 4. Factionalism among nobility after Aurangzeb 5. Jagirdari crisis 6. Growth of Maratha and other regional powers in Bengal, Hyderabad, Avadh, Mysore etc. 7 Foreign invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Abdali. 8 British conquest of India.

Later Mughals

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): Original Name-Muazzam, Title-Alam I.

Jahandar shah (1712-1713): Ascended the throne with the help of Zulfikar Khan; Abolished Jaziya.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719): Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers-Abdulla Khan and Hussain Khan.

Muhammad Shah (1719-1748): In 1738-39, Nadir Shah raided India and took away Thakht-i-Taus (the peacock throne) and Kohinoor diamond.

Ahmed Shah (1748-1754): Ahmad Shah Abdali (General of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi and Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.

Alamgir II (1754-1759) : Ahmad Shah occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was plundered by Marathas.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806) : Nazib Khan became very powerful in Delhi so much so that he could not enter Delhi for 12 years.

Akbar II (1806-1837] Pensioner of East India Company.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857) :Last Mughal Emperor who was made premier during 1857 revolt. He was deported to Rangoon (Burma, now Mayanmar) in 1858 where he died in 1862.

Mughal Administration

• Mughal Empire was divided into Subas which were further subdivided into Sarkar, Parganj and Gram.
• However, it also had other territorial units as Khalisa (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajyas) and Inams (gifted lands, mainly waste lands).
• There were 15 Subas (provinces) during Akbar's reign, which later increased to 20 under Aurangzeb's reign.

• Akbar introduced Mansabdari system. The term Mansab indicates the rank of its holder. Mansabdari was both civil and military. Almost the whole nobility, bureaucracy and military hold Mansabs.
• The Mughal Mansab was dual i.e. Zat (personal rank and pay status) and Sawar (number of horsemen to maintain).
• Mansabdar were of 3 categories: Mansabdars, Amirs and Amir-i-umda.
• According to pay mode they were of 2 types: Naqdi (paid through cash) and Jagirdar (paid through Jagirs).
• Jahangir added Duaspah Sih-aspah system i.e. one's sawar rank can be raised without raising his zat rank.
• Shahjahan added Jama-Damior Mahana Zagir (Monthly Scale) system.
• It ultimately caused Jagirdari and agrarian crisis, which was a major cause of the decline of Mughals.
• There were several methods of revenue collection in practice viz. Kankut (estimate), Rai (yield per unit area) and Zabti (based on the yields of crops).
• Dahsala Bandobast or Zabti: A standard method of collection based on rates of crops determined after 10 years assessment. Todar Mai pioneered it.
• Jagirdari system was the assignment of land in proportion to a Jagirdar's salary. Hence, every Mansabdar was entitled to a jagir if he was not paid in cash.
• Madad-i-maashot Suyurghalot Inam-were land grants to people of favour/religious assignment.

Mughal Culture

• Babur built two mosques, one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilakhand.
• Humayun's tomb was built by his widow Bega Beghum (alias Haji Begum).
• An unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri is Panch Mahal Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist vihara.
• The Mariam's palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-khas at Sikri are Indian in their plan.
• Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory), formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri.
• Salim Chisti's tomb (re-done in Marble by Jahangir) is the first Mughal building in pure marble). Palace of Birbal Palace of Tansen are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which was later completed by Jahangir.
• The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri is known as Epic in red sand stone.
• Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-daula/Mirza Ghiyas Beg’s marble tombat Agra, which is noticeable for the first use of pietra dura (floral designs made up of semiprecious stones) technique.
• Jahangir introduced vigorous use of marble instead of red sand stone and use of pietra dura for decorative purpose.
• Jahangir built Moti Masjid in Lahore and his mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
• Tomb or Mausoleum building activity reached its climex in Taj Mahal. Shahjahan also built the Jama Masjid.
• Some of the important buildings built by Shahjahan at Agra are Moti Masjid (only Mosque of marble). Khaasa Mahal, Mussmman Burz (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last year in captivity) etc.
• He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabadm. 1637where he built the Red Fort and Takht-i-Taus (Peacock throne)
• The only building built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fo is Moti Masjid.
• The only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura in Aurangabad.
• Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore.
• Humayun had taken into his service two master painter Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad.
• Daswant and Basawan were two famous painters of Akbar's court.
• Abdul Hassan, Ustad Mansurand Bishandas were three famous painters of Jahangir's court.
• Jahangir claims that he could distinguish the work of each artist in a picture.

Titles given by Mughal Ruler

Literature of Mughal Period