Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)

Later Vedic Period (1000 BC - 600 BC)

Geographical Area

• During the later Vedic Period, the Aryan settlements covered virtually the whole of Northern India. – Aryavarta

• The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhya desa).

• There was mention of more rivers such as Narmada, Sadanira (modern Gandak), Chambal, etc.

• The expansion of settlements towards the east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahmana – how Vidgha Mathava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira, and came to the land of Videha (modern Tirhut).

  "He (Agni) then went burning along, the earth towards the east, and Gotama Rahugana (the priest) and Videgh Mathava followed after him – Satapatha Brahamana"

• Emergence of Janapadas – Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas), Panchala (Combination of Turvashas and Krivis), Kashi, etc., in the  Doab region.

• Later, Vedic literature mentions the Vindhya mountain (the Southern mountain).

• With reference to the territorial divisions, the later Vedas give three broad divisions of India:

  • Aryavarta (Northern India)

  • Madhya desa (Central India)

  • Dakhinapath (Southern India)

Polity

• Large kingdoms and stately cities made their appearance in the later Vedic Period.

• In Taittariya Brahmana, we find the theory of the divine origin of kingship.

• The governmental machinery became more elaborate than before, as a sequel to the growth of the power of the king.

• New civil functionaries emerged besides the only Rigvedic civil functionary, the purohita. These were:

  • Bhagadudha (Collector of taxes)

  • Suta/Sarathi (Royal herald or Charioteer)

  • Khasttri (Chamberlain)

  • Akshavapa (Courier)

• Military officials of the Rigvedic times continued:

  • Senani (the general)

  • Gramani (the head of the village)

• The period saw the beginning of a regular system of provincial government:

  • Sthapati: administered outlying areas occupied by aborigines

  • Satapati: put over a group of one hundred villages

  • Adhikrita: village official

  • Ugras (Upanishads): probably a police official

• Sabha and Samiti continued to exert popular control over kingdom affairs.

• Vidatha had completely disappeared.

• Kings did not possess a standing army.

• The judiciary also grew. The king played a great role in criminal law:

  • Crimes: killing of an embryo, homicide, murder of a Brahmana, stealing gold, drinking sura.

  • Treason was a capital offence.

Society

• Yajnas became elaborate and complicated ceremonies, leading to the emergence of Brahmanas (learned men).

• Aryan expansion led to the emergence of:

  • Kshatriyas – conquerors and administrators

  • Vaishyas – derived from Vis, meaning people

  • Shudras – non-Aryans

• These social divisions were not rigid.

• The institution of Gotra (clan) appeared.

• Higher castes could marry lower ones, but not Shudras.

• The idea of pollution appeared.

Ashramas and Purusharthas

• Earliest reference to 4 Ashramas:

  • Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha, Sanyasa

• Formed to attain the 4 Purusharthas:

  • Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha

Status of Women

• Declined status:

  • Aitareya Brahmana: “A daughter is the source of miser,y but a son is the protector of family.”

  • Maitrayani Samhita: Three evils – liquor, woman, dice

• Monogamy was ideal, but polygamy was frequent.

• Women were prohibited from attending political assemblies.

• Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue shows that some women have received higher education.

Types of Hindu Marriage (Vivaha)

Mixed Marriages

• Anuloma Vivaha: Upper caste man & lower caste woman

• Pratiloma Vivaha: Reverse of Anulom

16 Samskaras:

1.     Garbhadhana         2.     Pumsavana

3.     Simantonnayan      4.     Jatakarma

5.     Namakaran            6.     Nishkramana

7.     Annaprashana       8.     Chudakarma

9.     Kamachhedana        10.   Vidyarmbha

11.   Upanayana               12.   Vedarambha

13.   Samavaratana          14.   Vivaha

15.   Vanprastha               16.   Antyesti

Religion

• Earlier deities Indra and Agni became less important.

• New prominent gods:

  • Prajapati (creator; later Brahma)

  • Vishnu (patron god of Aryans)

  • Rudra (god of animals; later Shiva/Mahesha)

• Pushana, once the protector of cattle, became the god of Shudras.

• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad gave the doctrines of:

  • Transmigration (Punarjanma / Sansarachakra)

  • Karma (deeds)

12 Ratnins (Satpatha Brahmana)

Simple Rigvedic ceremonies gave way to elaborate sacrifices needing 17 priests.

Two Varieties of Sacrifices

1. Laghuyajnas (Simple / Private):

• Performed by the householder

• E.g., Pancha Mahayajna, Agnihotra, Darsha Yajna, Purnamasa Yajna

2. Mahayajnas (Grand / Royal):

• Undertaken only by wealthy kings:

  • Rajasuya Yajna: Royal consecration

  • Vajapeya Yajna: Drink of strength

  • Asvamedha Yajna: Horse sacrifice

  • Agnishtoma Yajna: Animal sacrifice with soma consumption

• The end of the period saw a reaction against rituals, reflected in the Upanishads.

Economy

• Land became more valuable than cattle.

• Agriculture replaced cattle rearing.

• Ploughs were drawn by 24 oxen; manure was known.

• Crops: Rice, barley, beans, sesame, wheat.

• Emergence of new occupations: fishermen, washermen, dyers, door-keepers, footmen.

• Clear distinction between artisans: chariot-maker vs carpenter, tanner vs hide-dresser.

• Knowledge of metals advanced:

  • Mention of tin, silver, iron, along with gold and ayas (copper/iron)

• References to guilds of merchants:

  • Ganas (corporations)

  • Sreshtins (aldermen)

• PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Culture: 1100 BC – 600 BC

Final Thoughts

The Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BC) marked a significant transformation in Indian society, politics, economy, and religion.

The Aryan expansion led to the formation of large kingdoms, complex administrative systems, and clearly defined social classes. Rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate, laying the foundation for Brahmanical dominance, while philosophical thought began to emerge through the Upanishads.

Agriculture gained importance over pastoral life, and economic activities diversified. Though societal hierarchies solidified, this period also witnessed the seeds of spiritual introspection and institutional development that would shape future Indian civilization.