Ancient India

Introduction - Indian History

By Examguru / 03 Oct, 2023 / Download PDF

More Articles

Introduction - Indian History

What is History?

  • The study of the Past is called History.
  • The English word ‘History is derived from the Greek word ‘historia’, meaning research, inquiry or investigation.
  • The Greek historian Herodotus (484 BC -425 BC) the first real historian of the world. He wrote only one book ‘The Histories' (430 BC). The Histories' describes the background and events of the Graeco-Persian/Greek-Iranian Wars. It was the Roman philosopher Cicero (106 BC-43 BC) who first of all called Herodotus ‘The Father of History'.
  • The German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886 AD) is known as 'The Father of Modern History". According to Ranke, the task of a historian is to describe the past as it actually was ['wie es eingentlich gewesen' (German words)-what it (the past) actually was (English translation)].
  • The German philosopher & propounder of Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis' theory Hegel (1770-1831 AD) once said 'History repeats itself', later on German economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818-83 AD) extended the line: "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce."
  • According to British historian E. H. Carr (1892-1982 AD): "History is a continuous process of interaction between the Historian and his facts, an unending dialoge between the present and the past".

A System of Dating

  • BC and AD: BC is the acronym of Before Christ. This is an English phrase meaning 'Before the birth of (Jesus) Christ'. So, the years before the birth of Jesus Christ is known as 'Before Christ' and it is denoted as BC in short.e.g.: Gautama Buddha was born in 563 BC and died in483 BC.
  • Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC and died in 323 BC.
    AD is the acronym of Anno Domini. This is a Latin phrase meaning 'In the year of the Lord (Jesus Christ)'. So, the year beginning with the birth of Jesus Christ is known as 'Anno Domini', and it is denoted as AD in short. e.g.: Jesus Christ was crucified in 30AD. Kushana ruler Kanishka ascended the throne in78 AD. Hazrat Muhammad was born in 570 AD anddied in 632 AD.
  • Time Line: The line displaying the events of past timeis called 'Time Line'. 

From the above-mentioned time line, it is clear that the years before the birth of Christ are counted backward, viz. ... 500 BC ... 5 BC 4 BC  3 BC 2 BC 1 BC. The meaning of one year before 1 BC is 2 BC, the meaning of one year before 2 BC is 3 BC, the meaning of one year before 3 BC is 4 BC, and the meaning of one year before 4 BC is 5 BC. In other words, firstly the year of 5 BC passed, after that 4 BC came, after that 3 BC, after that 2 BC and lastly 1 BC appeared. In the mathematical language, it is like backward counting (100,99,98, and so on). Now if anyone raises a question that which year is the first one and which year is the last one in 500 BC and 2000 BC. Then right answer will be 2000 BC is the first one and 500 BC is the last one. It means firstly 2000 BC passed and after that 500 BC appeared.

From the above-mentioned time line, it is also clear that the years after the birth of Jesus Christ are counted forward. It implies that the meaning of one year after 1 AD is 2 AD, one year after 2 AD is 3 AD, one year after 3 AD is 4 AD, one year after 4 AD is 5 AD. In the mathematical language, it is like forward counting (1,2,3 and so on). Now if anyone raises a question that which year is the first one and which year is the last one in 500 AD and 2000 AD then right answer will be 500 AD is the first one and 2000 AD is the last one. It means firstly the year 500 AD passed and after that 2,000 AD appeared.

Time Glossary: The glossary relating to time is known as 'Time Glossary'.

Some important terms associated with time are-

Decade
The period of 10 years

First Half (of a century)

First 50 years of a century i.e. the period from 1st year to 50th  year

Second Half (of a century)

Last 50 years of a century i.e. the period from 51st year to 100th  year

Century

The period of 100 years

Millenium

The period of 1,000 years

Circa-Ca./C.

If the exact date is not known then the word 'circa' is used with the date. In short, Circa is denoted as Ca. or C. Example: C. 1,500 BC-600 BC: The Vedic Culture Period means that the exact date of Vedic Culture Period is not known but it (C. 1500 BC-600 BC) is somewhere close to that.

  

First decade of 20thcentury AD means --  The period from 1901 AD to 1910 AD.

Fifth decade of 20thcentury AD means -- The period from 1941 AD to 1950 AD.

Eighth decade of 20thcentury AD means --  The period from 1971 AD to 1980 AD.

Last decade of 20thcentury AD means -- The period from 1991 AD to 2000 AD.

First half of 20th century AD means —  From 1901 AD to 1950 AD.

Second half of 20th century AD means --- From 1951 AD to 2000 AD.

6th century BC means  -   600 BC to 501 BC

4th century BC means   -   400 BC to 301 BC

16th century AD means  -   1501 AD to 1600 AD

20thcentury AD means   -    1901 AD to 2000 AD

Second Millenium BC  -   2000 BC-1001 BC

First Millenium BC   -  1000 BC-1 BC

First Millenium AD  -  1 AD-1000 AD

Second Millenium AD  -  1001 AD-2000 AD

Important Eras

Name of the Era

Reckoned from

Remarks

Kali

3102-3101 BC

Began 20 years after the end of Mahabharata War.

Saptarshi /

Laukika

3077-3076 BC

Started after the expiry of 25 Kali year.

Vikrama/

Krita /

Malawa

58/57 BC

Commenced by Vikramaditya, the local king of Ujjayini (Malawa), to commemorate the victory over the Sakas.

Saka

 

78 AD

Commenced by Kushan ruler Kanishka, on the occasion of his ascendence to the throne. Saka era is known as Salivahana Sakabda in South India. The Government of India adopted Saka Era along with the Gregorian Calendar (i.e. Julean Calendar/ Christian Calendar) as National alendar on 22 March, 1957 (1st Chaitra 1879 Saka).

Kalchuri

248 AD

Founded by Abhir king Ishwar Sen, later on used by Traikutaka ruler and Kalchuris of Chedi.

Gupta

319-20 AD

Founded by Gupta ruler Chandragupta on the occasion of his ascendance to the throne. After the fall of the Guptas, the Maitrakas of Valabhi used this era with a new name Valabhi Samvata. The beginning of Gupta era was fixed by J.F.Fleet in 1887 AD.

Harsha

606 AD

Founded by Harshavardhana of Kanrtauj, to pronounce his ascendence to the throne.

Hijri

622 AD

Founded by Umar, the second Caliphate of Khilafat empire, to commemorate the hijrat from Macca to Madina by Hazral Muhammad.

Kollam

825 AD

An era that is in use in Malabar (Kerala).

Nevari/Nepali

879 AD

Founded by Jaydeo Mall.

Chalukya-Vikrama

1076 AD

Founded by Vikramaditya—VI, the Chalukya ruler of Kalyani, on the occasion

Of his ascedence to the throne.

Lakshmana

1119 AD

Founded by Sen ruler of Bengal Lakshmana Sen.

llahi

1556 AD

Founded by Mughal ruler Akbar in 1584 AD, but in 1658 AD Aurangzeb abolished the use of Ilahi era.

Raj Saka

1674 AD

Founded by Maratha Chhatrapati Shivaji to pronounce his ascendence to the throne.

Note: 

Gregorian Calendar is modified form of Christian Calendar and Christian Calendar is modified form of Julian Calendar. It means these Calendars are loosely synonyms to one other.

2.  The eras, except Vikrama, Saka and Hijri era, are either vanished in course of time or still in use in specific regions.

3.  National Calendar: Saka Samvata is used in some government sectors customarily (officially), where as Gregorian Calendar is used everywhere practically.

Conversion of Eras:

With the help of the above-mentioned table, any era can be converted into other era. Conversion of AD of Christian era in Vikrama era: For conversion of AD era in Vikrama era, 57 is added to AD. e.g. Convert 2013 AD into Vikrama era.

AD      Vikrama

2013 + 57 = 2070

Conversion of Vikrama era into AD era: To find AD era from Vikrama era, 57 is subtracted from Vikrama era. e.g. Convert 2070 Vikrama era into AD era.

Vikrama          AD

2070 - 57 = 2013

Conversion of AD era into Saka era: To get Saka era from AD era, 78 is subtracted from AD. e.g. Convert 2013 AD into Saka era.

AD      Saka

2013 - 78 = 1935

Conversion of Saka era into AD era: To find equivalent AD era from Saka era, 78 is added to Saka era. e.g. Convert 1935 Saka era into AD era.

Saka    AD

1935 + 78 = 2013

Conversion of AD of Christian era into Hijri era: To calculate Hijri era from AD of Christian era, the following formula (C - 622) =...H is used.

e.g. Convert 2013 AD of Christian era into Hijri era.

              (2013 - 622) =1434 H

Conversion of Hijri era into AD of Christian era: To calculate AD of Christian era from Hijri era, the following formula (H ) = ….C is used. e.g. Convert 1434 Hijri era into AD of Christian era. 

(1434 ) = 2013 C

Period

Bipartite Division: History is generally divided into two periods-Pre-Historic and Historic. The period that has no written evidences is called Pre-Historic Period and the period that has written evidences is known as Historic Period. In other words, the period before the beginning of writing is called Pre-Historic Period and the period after the beginning of writing is known as Historic Period. The time period of Pre-Historic Period is accepted as 30,00,000 BC to 600 BC and the time period of Historic Period as 600 BC to till date. Tripartite Division: Tripartite division of History ismore prevalent in practice. According to this, History is divided into three periods-Pre-Historic, ProtoHistoric and Historic.

 

Name of the Period

Time Period

Definition & Example

Pre-Historic Period

 

30,00,000 BC-2,500 BC

The period for which no written evidence is available. e.g.: Lithic (Stone) Period

Pre-Historic Period

 

2,500BC - 600 BC

The period for which written evidence is available but either their script (used in the documents) has not been deciphered or their written documents have not been confirmed with archaeological evidences. e.g. Indus Civilization and Vedic Culture. In the case of Indus Civilization, we have not yet been able to decipher their script, and in the case of Vedic Culture, we have not suffice archaeological evidences to confirm written evidences of that period.

Historic Period

600 BC – till date

The period for which written evidences is available. e.g. Mahajanapada Period to Till Date.

Chronology

German historian Christoph Cellarius (1638-1707 AD) was the first historian who gave us tripartite division of History. He divided history into three periods-Ancient, Medieval and Modern History. After him, this tripartite division became standard (model) for history-writting or reading. For convenience of study, Indian History is divided into four periods-

Ancient India

the beginning-647 AD i.e. from Lithic (Stone) Period to death of Harsha

Medieval India

647-1757

i.e. from death of Harsha to the Battle of Plassey

Modern India

1757-1990

i.e. from the Battle of Plassey to Globlization

Post Modern India

1991-till date

i.e. from Globlization to till date

 

Ancient India: the Beginning-647 AD

Pre- Historic Period

30,00,000 BC-600 BC

Indus Civilization

2,500 BC-1750 BC

Vedic Culture

1,500 BC-600 BC

Mahajanapada Period

600 BC-322 BC

Maurya Period

322 BC-185 BC

Post-Maurya/Pre-Gupta Period

185 BC-319 AD

Gupta Period

319 AD-550 AD

Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty

550 AD-647 AD

Note: On the basis of tools, Pre-Historic Period is divided into three sub-periods-Lithic (Stone) Period, Copper Period & Iron Period.

Period

Medieval Period: 647-1757

Early Medieval Period

647-1206

Sultanate Period

1206-1526

Mughal Period

1526-1707

 

Modern Period : 1757 -1990

Stages of British Colonialism

First Phase

The Mercantile Phase

1757 – 1813

Monopoly of trade & Direct appropriation of revenue

Second Phase

The Industrial Phase

1813-1858

Period of Lasez Fair i.e. Free Trade

Third Phase

The Financial Phase

1860-1947

Finance Imperlism (Period of British capital investment in India)

 

British Policy towards Native States of India

Ring Fence Policy

1757-1813

Subordinate Isolation Policy

1813-1858

Subordinate Union Policy

1858-1935

Equal Federation Policy

1935-1947

 

Modern Period : 1757 -1990

Stages of British Colonialism

First Phase of Congress

1885-1905

Moderate Phase

Second Phase Congress

1905-1917

Extremist Phase

Third Phase Congress

1917-1947

Gandhian Era

More Related Articles

Historical Sources (Literary & Archaeological Source)

The sources that give information about the events of past time are known as 'Historical Sources'. There are two types of historical sources - Literary Sources and Archaeological Sour

examguru by ExamGuru

Pre-Historic Period (30,00,000 BC - 600 BC) Human Evolution

Africa was the original homeland of humans. For this reason Africa is called 'the Cradle of Humankind'. The following two theories are prevalent in connection with human evolutio

examguru by ExamGuru

The Stone Age/Lithic Age 30,00,000 BC - 1,000 BC (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)

About early period of human, some archaeological evidence were found in which stone implements are in great amount. That’s why this period is called Lithic Age i.e, Stone Age. Lithic Age/ t

examguru by ExamGuru

Pre Harappan, Harappan, Post Harappan Age/Calco-Lithic Age (3,500 BC - 1,000 BC)

The term 'Chalcolithic' is the combination of two Greek words Chaleo (Copper) & Lithic (Stone). Thus the meaning of Chalcolithic Age is Copper-Stone Age. In that age men used copper i

examguru by ExamGuru

Vedic Period (Vedic, Rig Vedic, Later Vedic Period) - 1500 BC - 600 BC Original Homo of The Aryan

The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial issue. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that

examguru by ExamGuru

Mahajanapada Period (600 BC-325 BC)

S. 16 Mahajanapadas (Modern Area) Capital 1 Anga (districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar) Champa/

examguru by ExamGuru

Religious Movements (600 BC - 400 BC) – Jainism, Buddhism

Various religious movements viz. Buddhism, Jainismetc. were bom and grew up in the Post-Vedic Period known as the Period of Second Urbanisation or the Age of Buddha (6th Century BC to 4th Century

examguru by ExamGuru

Maurya Period (322 BC - 155 BC)

Sources for Mauryan History 1. Literary Sources Kautilya’s’ Arthasastra’: The title Arthasastra means 'The science of material gain’ (fore a state not a perso

examguru by ExamGuru

Post-Maurya/Pre-Gupta Period (185BC-319 AD)

I. Native Successors of Mauryas Sunga Dynasty : 185 BC – 73 BC [Capital – Vidisha (M.P.)] Sunga Dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Sunga, a Brahmin Commander-in-Chief o

examguru by ExamGuru

The Sangam Period (1st-3rd Century AD)

Three Early Kingdoms Kingdom Emblem Capital First Ruler Famous Ruler The Chera Bow

examguru by ExamGuru

Toppers

anil kumar
Akshay kuamr
geeta kumari
shubham