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Introduction - Indian History

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Introduction - Indian History

What is History?

The study of the Past is called ‘History’.
The English word ‘History is derived from the Greek word ‘historia’, meaning research, inquiry, or investigation.
The Greek historian Herodotus (484 BC -425 BC) was the first real historian of the world. He wrote only one book, ‘The Histories' (430 BC).

The Histories describes the background and events of the Graeco-Persian/Greek-Iranian Wars. It was the Roman philosopher Cicero (106 BC- 43 BC) who first called Herodotus ‘The Father of History'.

The German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886 AD) is known as 'The Father of Modern History".

According to Ranke, the task of a historian is to describe the past as it was ['wie es eigentlich gewesen' (German words)-what it (the past) was (English translation)].

The German philosopher & proponent of ‘Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis' theory, Hegel (1770-1831 AD), once said 'History repeats itself, Later on, German economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818-83 AD) extended the line: "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce."
According to British historian E. H. Carr (1892-1982 AD): "History is a continuous process of interaction between the Historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past".

A System of Dating

BC and AD:

BC is the acronym for Before Christ.
This is an English phrase meaning 'Before the birth of (Jesus) Christ'.
So, the years before the birth of Jesus Christ are known as 'Before Christ'
It is denoted as BC in short. e.g., Gautama Buddha was born in 563 BC and died in 483 BC Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC and died in 323 BC.
AD is the acronym of Anno Domini. This is a Latin phrase meaning 'In the year of the Lord (Jesus Christ)'.
So, the year beginning with the birth of Jesus Christ is known as 'Anno Domini', and it is denoted as AD in short. e.g., Jesus Christ was crucified in 30 AD.
Kushana ruler Kanishka ascended the throne in 78 AD. Hazrat Muhammad was born in 570 AD and died in 632 AD.

Timeline:

The line displaying the events of past time is called 'Timeline'.
From the above-mentioned timeline, it is clear that the years before the birth of Christ are counted backward, viz, ... 500 BC ... 5 BC 4 BC 3 BC 2 BC 1 BC.
The meaning of one year before 1 BC is 2 BC, the meaning of one year before 2 BC is 3 BC, the meaning of one year before 3 BC is 4 BC, and the meaning of one year before 4 BC is 5 BC.
In other words, firstly, the year 5 BC passed, after that 4 BC came, after that 3 BC, after that 2 BC, and lastly 1 BC appeared. In mathematical language, it is like backward counting (100,99,98, and so on).
Now, if anyone raises a question that which year is the first one and which year is the last one in 500 BC and 2000 BC.
The right answer will be 2000 BC is the first one, and 500 BC is the last one. It means first 2000 BC, and after that, 500 BC appeared.
From the above-mentioned timeline, it is also clear that the years after the birth of Jesus Christ are counted forward.
It implies that the meaning of one year after 1 AD is 2 AD, one year after 2 AD is 3 AD, one year after 3 AD is 4 AD, and one year after 4 AD is 5 AD.
In mathematical language, it is like forward counting (1,2,3, and so on).
Now, if anyone raises a question that which year is the first one and which year is the last one in 500 AD and 2000 AD, then the right answer will be that 500 AD is the first one and 2000 AD is the last one.
It means firstly that the year 500 AD passed, and after that 2,000 AD appeared.

Time Glossary:

The glossary relating to time is known as the 'Time Glossary'.

Some important terms associated with time are —

Decade	The period of 10 years
First Half (of a century)	First 50 years of a century, i.e,. the period from the 1st year to the 50^th year
Second Half (of a century)	The last 50 years of the century, i.e., the period from the 51^st year to the 100^th year
Century	The period of 100 years
Millenium	The period of 1,000 years
Circa-Ca./C.	If the exact date is not known, then the word 'circa' is used with the date. In short, Circa is denoted as Ca. or C. Example: C. 1,500 BC-600 BC: The Vedic Culture Period means that the exact date of the Vedic Culture Period is not known, but it (C. 1500 BC-600 BC) is somewhere close to that.

The first decade of the 20th century AD means — The period from 1901 AD to 1910 AD.
- The fifth decade of the 20th century AD means — The period from 1941 AD to 1950 AD.
- The eighth decade of the 20th century AD means — The period from 1971 AD to 1980 AD.
- The last decade of the 20th century AD means — The period from 1991 AD to 2000 AD.
The first quarter of the 20th century AD means — From 1901 AD to 1925 AD.
- Fourth or last quarter of the 20th century AD means — From 1975 AD to 2000 AD.
The first half of the 20th century AD means — From 1901 AD to 1950 AD.
- The second half of the 20th century AD means — From 1951 AD to 2000 AD.
6th century BC means — 600 BC to 501 BC
- 4th century BC means — 400 BC to 301 BC
- 16th century AD means — 1501 AD to 1600 AD
- 20th century AD means — 1901 AD to 2000 AD
Second Millennium BC — 2000 BC- 1001 BC
- First Millennium BC — 1000 BC- 1 BC
- First Millennium AD — 1 AD- 1000 AD
- Second Millennium AD — 1001 AD- 2000 AD

Important Eras

Name of the Era	Reckoned from	Remarks
Kali	3102-3101 BC	Began 20 years after the end of the Mahabharata War.
Saptarshi / Laukika	3077-3076 BC	Started after the expiry of the 5th Kali year.
Vikrama/ Krita / Malawa	58/57 BC	Commenced by Vikramaditya, the local king of Ujjayini (Malawa), to commemorate the victory over the Sakas.
Saka	78 AD	Commenced by Kushan ruler Kanishka, on the occasion of his ascension to the throne. Saka era as Salivahana, the kabda in South India. The Government of India adopted the Saka Era along with the Gregorian Cal,eJuliani.e (Julian Calendar/ Christian Calendar) as the National Calendar on 22 March 1957 (1st Chaitra 1879 Saka).
Kalchuri	248 AD	Founded by Abhir king Ishwar Sen, later used by the Traikutaka ruler and Kalchuris of Chedi.
Gupta	319-20 AD	Founded by the Gupta ruler Chandragupta on the occasion of his ascendance to the throne. After the fall of the Guptas, the Maitrakas of Valabhi used this era with a new name, Valabhi Samvata. The beginning o,f the Gupta era was fixed by J.F. in 1887 AD.
Harsha	606 AD	Founded by Harshavardhana of Kanrtauj, to proclaim his ascendence to the throne
jri	622 AD	Founded by Umar, the second Caliph of the Khilafat empire, to commemorate the hijra from Mecca to Madina by Hazrat MuhammaMecca
llam	825 AD	A Hazrat is in use in Malabar (Kerala).
Nevari/Nepali	879 AD	Founded by Jaydeo Mall.
Chalukya-Vikrama	1076 AD	Founded by Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukya ruler of Kalyani, on the occasion Of his accession to the throne.
Lakshmana	1119 AD	Faction Sen ruler of Bengal, Lakshmana Sen.
llahi	1556 AD	Founded by Mughal ruler Akbar in 1584 AD, but in 1658 AD, Aurangzeb abolished the use of, Ilaahi era.
Raj Saka	1674 AD	Founded by Maratha Chhatrapati Shivaji to proclaim his ascendence to the throne.

Noteproclaimelopment-sequence of Gregorian Calendar:

Julian Calendar
- (Introduced in 45 BC by Roman King Julius Caesar)
Christian Calendar
- (Introduced in 527 AD by Monk Dionysius Exiguus)
Gregorian Calendar
- (Introduced in 1582 AD by Roman Pope Gregory XIII)

Gregorian Calendar is modithe ed form of Christi, an Cathe lendar and Christian Ca alendar is modifithe ed form of the Julian Calendar. It means these Calendars are loosely synonymous with one another.

2. The erasynonymoustwithikramanotherka and Hijri era are either vanished in the course of time or still in use in significant regions.

3. National Calendar: Saka Samvata is used in some government sectors customarily (whereas)the Gregorian Calendar is used everywhere practically.

Conversion of Eras:

With the help of the above-mentioned table, any era can be converted into another era.

Conversion of AD of Chanotherthe an era in Vikrama era: For the conversion of AD era in Vikrama era, 57 ithe s added to AD.
- e.g., Convert 2013 AD into the Vikrama era.

AD Vikrama

2013 + 57 = 2070

Conversion of Vikrama era into AD era: To find the AD era from the Vikrama era, 57 is subtracted from the Vikrama era.
- e.g., Convert 2070 Vikrama era into AD era.

Vikrama AD

2070 - 57 = 2013

Conversion of the AD era into the Saka era: To get the Saka era from the AD era, 78 is subtracted from the AD.
- e.g., Convert 2013 AD into the Saka era.

AD Saka

2013 - 78 = 1935

Conversion of Saka era into AD era: To find the equivalent AD era from the Saka era, 78 is added to the Saka era.
- e.g. Convert rt 1935 Saka era into AtheD era.

Saka Athe D

1935 + 78 = 2013

Conversion of AD of the Christian era into Hijri era: To calculate Hijri era from AD of the Christian era, the following formula (C - 622) x 33/32 =...H is used.
- e.g., Convert 2013 AD of the Christian era into the Hijri era.

2013 - 622) x 33/32 =1434 H

Conversion of Hijri era into AD of Christian era: To calculate AD of Christian era from Hijri era, the following formula (the H x 32/33 ) + 622 = ...C is used.
- e.g., Convert 1434 Hijri era into the AD of the Christian era.

(1434 x 32/33) + 622 = 2013 C

Period

Bipartite Division:

History is generally divided into two periods: Pre-historic and Historic.
The prehistoric period has no written evidence and is called the Pre-Historic Period, and the period that has written evidence is known as the Historic Period.
In other words, the period before the beginning of writing is called the Prehistoric Period, and the period after the beginning of writing is known as the Historic Period.
The period of the Pre-Historic Period is accepted as 30,00,000 BC to 600 BC, and the period of the Historic Period as 600 BC to till date.

Tripartite Division:

The tripartite division of History is more prevalent in practice.
According to this, History is divided into three periods- Pre-Historic, Proto-Historic, and Historic.

Name of the Period	Period	Definition & Example
Pre-Historic Period	30,00,000 BC-2,500 BC	The period for which no written evidence is available. e.g., Lithic (Stone) Period
Pre-Historic Period	2,500 BC - 600 BC	The period for which written evidence is available, but either their script (used in the documents) has not been deciphered, or their written documents have not been confirmed with archaeological evidence. e.g., Indus Civilization and Vedic Culture. In the case of the Indus Civilization, we have not yet been able to decipher their script, and in the case of Vedic Culture, we do not have sufficient archaeological not have evidence to confirm written evidence of that period
ic Period	600 BC – till date	The period for which written evidence is available.Evidence evidenceajanapada Period to Till Date.

Chronology

German historian Christoph Cellarius (1638-1707 AD) was the first historian who give us a tripartite division of History.
He divided history into three periods— Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History.
After him, this tripartite division became standard (model) for history-writing or real history-writing of study.
Indian History is divided into four periods-

Ancient India	the beginning-647 AD i.e., from the Lithic (Stone) Period to the death of Harsha
Medievathe l India	647-1757 i.e., from the death of Harsha t,o the Battle of Plassey
Modern India	1757-1990 i.e., from the Battle of Plassey to Globalization
Post ModeGlobalization	1-till date i.e., from Globalization to till daGlobalization

India: the Beginning- 647 AD
Pre- Pre-Pre-HBeginning- 647d	30,00,000 BC-600 BC
Indus Civilization	2,500 BC-1750 BC
Vedic Culture	1,500 BC-600 BC
Mahajanapada Period	600 BC-322 BC
Maurya Period	322 BC-185 BC
Post-Maurya/Pre-Gupta Period	185 BC-319 AD
Gupta Period	319 AD-550 AD
Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty	550 AD-647 AD

Note: Based on tools, based onriodite is divided into three Sub-periods- the Lithic Period & Iron Period.

Medieval Period: 647-1757
Early Medieval Period	647-1206
Sultanate Period	1206-1526
Mughal Period	1526-1707

Modern Period: 1757 -1990
Stages of British Colonialism
First Phase	The Mercantile Phase	1757 – 1813	Monopoly of trade & Direct appropriation of revenue
Second Phase	The Industrial Phase	1813-1858	Period of Lasez Fair,i.e., Free Trade
Third, Pha,se	The Financial Phase	1860-1947	Finance Imperialism (Period of Imperialism, capital investment in India)

British Policy towards Native States of India
Ring Fence Policy	1757-1813
Subordinate Isolation Policy	1813-1858
Subordinate Union Policy	1858-1935
Equal Federation Policy	1935-1947

National Movement
First Phase of Congress	1885-1905	Moderate Phase
Second Phase Congress	1905-1917	Extremist Phase
Third Phase Congress	1917-1947	Gandhian Era