The Stone Age/Lithic Age 30,00,000 BC to 1,000 BC

The Stone Age/Lithic Age 30,00,000 BC to 1,000 BC

The Stone Age, also called the Lithic Age, is named after the large number of stone tools found from this period. It is divided into three stages based on tools and lifestyle:

Paleolithic Age – The Old Stone Age

The word Paleolithic comes from two Greek words: Paleo (old) and lithic (stone), meaning Old Stone Age.

R.B. Foote, a geologist from the Geological Survey of India, was the first to systematically discover Stone Age tools in India. In 1863, he found a hand axe at Pallavaram in Tamil Nadu. Because of his contributions, he is known as the Father of Prehistoric Archaeology in India.

In 1982, another major discovery was made by Arun Sonakia, a geologist in the Paleontology Division. He found a female skull at Hathnora in the Narmada valley (Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh).

This was a big achievement because it placed India on the world map for finding early human (hominid) fossils. According to Sonakia, the skull belonged to Homo Erectus, an early human species from the Stone Age.

Paleolithic Human Life

• Primitive Living:

  • ​​​​​​​Paleolithic people lived a simple, wild life. They hunted animals and ate raw meat, fruits, and roots.

  • They didn’t know farming, wore unstitched clothes, and had no proper homes.

• No Fire at First:

  • ​​​​​​​In the early phase, they didn’t know about fire and ate raw food.

  • They had no way to protect themselves from wild animals.

• Discovery of Fire:

  • Around 2,00,000 BC to 1,00,000 BC, they discovered fire by rubbing quartzite stones.

  • This helped them cook food and stay safe—a big step in human evolution.

• Clothing:

  • ​​​​​​​They wore animal skins, bark, and leaves—especially in cold or rainy weather.

• Shelter and Art:

  • ​​​​​​​No permanent homes. They lived in caves, forests, or under trees.

  • Cave paintings, like those in Bhimbetka, show early art from the Upper Paleolithic Age.

• Food Habits:

  • ​​​​​​​They were food-gatherers, not farmers.

  • They had no idea of farming or pottery, and lived close to wild nature.

• Burial Practices:

  • ​​​​​​​There were no funerals. Dead bodies were left in the open and eaten by birds or animals.

Paleolithic Implements

On the basis of differences in stone-implements, the Paleolithic period is divided into three ages—Lower/Earlier Paleolithic Age, Middle Paleolithic Age and Upper/Later Paleolithic Age

Lower/ Earlier /Early Paleolithic people used quartzite (a type of stone) and other stones to make implements (tools & weapons).

On the basis of implement-type and spread regions, the cultures of lower Paleolithic period are divided into two parte-Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Sohan Culture) and Hand Axe culture (Madrasian culture)

• Chopper Chopping Pebble Culture: The implements of their culture were first found in Sohan river valley of west Punjab (Pakistan), that's why this culture is also called 'Sohan culture'.

• Pebble: Apiece of rock whose edges had been become smooth & shiny due to friction from flow of water.

• Chopper: Unifacial pebble/single-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a single edge)

• Chopping: Bifacial pebble/double-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a double edge).

• Hand Axe Culture: The implements of this culture were first found at Badmadurai & Attirampakkam of Madras, that's why it is also called 'Madrasian Culture'.

• Hand Axe: Hand axes were made using the core and flake method—thick at the base, thin at the front. They were used for cutting and tearing.

• Cleaver: The cleaver was used to cleave (split) the barks of trees and skins of animals.

• Scraper:The scraper was used to scrap (flay) the barks of trees and skins of animals.

Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic Sites

State wise descriptions of Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic sites are as follows.

Middle Paleolithic Implements

• The chief stone implement material of this age was flake. The implements made from flakes were Scraper, Burin, Boreretc.

• Due to preponderance of implements made from flake, the Middle Paleolithic Age is also called "Flake Culture".

• In the making of these implements the good quality of quartzite (a type of stone) was used. The precious stone like Chert, Zasper, Flint were also used in plenty to make implements.

Middle Paleolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Middle Paleolithic sites are as follows.

Upper/Later Paleolithic Implements

• The chief stone implement material of this age were Flake& Blade. The various types of implements were made fromFlake-Blade, in which Burin is the most important.

• Due to preponderance of implements made from Flake-Blade, the Upper/Later Paleolithic Age is also called 'Flake-Blade Culture'.

• In the making of these implements, the precious stones like Chert, Zasper, Flint etc were used. In this age, besides stones, bone-homs made implements are also found.

• These implements were made mainly from long bones and horns of animals. Uptil now the maximum number of bone- hom-made implements were found from Muchchhatala Chintamanugavi cave shelter of Andhra Pradesh.

Upper/Later Paleolithic Sites

Statewise description of Upper/Later Paleolithic sites are as follows.

Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (9,000 BC - 4,000 BC)   

• The term 'Mesolithic' is the combination of two Greekwords, Meso (Middle) and Lithic (Stone). Thus the meaning of Mesolithic Age is Middle Stone Age.

• Being an intermediate stage between Paleolithic Age &Neolithic Age, this is called Mesolithic Age.

• This was the age of transition, because they neither totally abandoned the characteristics of Paleolithic Age nor totally adopted the features of Neolithic Age.

• In India, the credit for the discovery of Mesolithic archaeological materials goes to John Evans. Mr. Evans excavated Sakkar & Rohri (archaeological sites of Sindh) in 1866.

Mesolithic Human Life

• Taming the Animals: Mesolithic people began domesticating animals like dogs, sheep, goats, and cattle. Early evidence of this comes from Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Bagore (Rajasthan).

• Burial of the Dead: These people were aware of the burial process of dead bodies. It is confirmed by the graves that have been found in Sarainahar Rai & Mahdaha of Pratapgarh district (Uttar Pradesh).

Mesolithic people buried their dead with food and tools, suggesting belief in life after death.

Dog skeletons found with humans at sites like Adamgarh show early domestication. Unlike the Paleolithic, complete human skeletons first appear in large numbers from this period.

Mesolithic Implements

• Tiny Tools: Mesolithic tools, called microliths, were very small (1–8 cm) and included scrapers, borers, lunates, and arrowheads.

• New Materials: Stone tools were made from agate, jasper, chert, and chalcedony, unlike the quartzite used in the Paleolithic Age.

• Bone & Horn Use: Some tools from this period were also crafted from bone and horn, showing innovation in material use.

Mesolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Mesolithic sites are as follows:

Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (7,000 BC-1,000 BC)

• The term 'Neolithic' is the combination of two Greek word9, Neo (= New) and Lithic (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Neolithic Age is New Stone Age.

• In India, the credit of the discovery of Neolithic archaeological materials goes to Dr. Primrose- He discovered neolithic implements polished stone knives & arrow-heads from Lingasur of Karnataka in 1842.

• After that in 1860, H.P. Le Mesurier discovered some implements of Neolithic Age from Tons river valley situated in Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh.

• Famous archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) wrote in his book 'Mein Makes Himself' that Neolithic implements had brought a revolution (or a great change) in man's material life. This revolution is named 'Neolithic Revolution' by him.

Neolithic Human Life

• Three chief characteristics of human life of Neolithic Age were—Crop cultivation (Agriculture), Animal husbandry & Fixed abode/habitat.

• Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) is called the earliest known village site of Indian subcontinent.

Agriculture

• Start of Agriculture: The Neolithic Age marked the beginning of agriculture, turning humans into food producers.

• Earliest Site: The earliest evidence of farming in the Indian subcontinent is from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Balochistan).

• Neolithic Crops: Neolithic people cultivated wheat, barley, paddy, millets, and vegetables.

• Earliest Evidence: Wheat and barley were first grown in Mehargarh, while the earliest paddy cultivation was found at Koldihwa (U.P.), the oldest known in the world.

Animal Husbandry

• Although men of lithic age were familiar with animals in the later phase of Mesolithic age, but in this period men's relation with animals became much intimate. In other words, in this age animal husbandry became extended.

• Among the animals domesticated by neolithic men, the main animals were—Dog, Sheep-Goat, Horse etc.

• The main occupation of Neolithic men were—animal hunting, catching fish & taming sheep-goat etc.

• Due to extension of agriculture and animal husbandry, way of life of men changed.

• Their nomadic life (ramping/wondering life) came to an end now and they used to live a life of a fanner tlmt settled in a place.

Clothes

• In this age, men started growing cotton and learnt about clothes.

• The clayey remains of spindle and loom from neolithic sites indicate that neolithic men knew about clothes weaving with the threads of wool, hemp (jute) & cotton.

• The earliest evidence of cotton in the world was found from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Pakistan).

• In oilier words, India is the first country in the world whose people leamt the art of spinning and weaving of cloth.

Houses

• Generally neolithic men lived in huts that had been made on the ground by bamboos and smearing of clay, [Exception : Kashmir Valley, Punjab (Pakistan)].

• In Kashmir and Punjab (Pakistan), Neolithic people lived in circular or oval pits dug into the ground, with niches for stairs and post-holes for thatched roofs.

• Evidence of this has been found at Burzahom and Gufkral (Kashmir) and Saraikhola (Punjab, Pakistan).

Pottery

• In 4,000 BC neolithic men invented Potter's wheel/ Wheel, which is believed to be a very important invention of technological advancement of men.

• Due to this invention, the pottery (earthenware vessels) that were made from potter's wheel had become possible, which were made by hand in the previous time.

• With the prevalance of wheel, the process of painting on the surface of pottery became popular.

Burial Process

• Two Burial Types in North India:

  • Complete burial: The body was laid flat in a circular pit.

  • Partial burial: Only selected bones were buried.

• Animal Burial Practice:

  • At Burzahom and Gufkral (Kashmir), dogs were buried with humans.

  • At Mehargarh (Baluchistan), goats were buried with their masters.

• Belief:

  • These animals were likely buried to serve the dead in the afterlife.

• Two Burial Types in South India:

  • Complete burial: Full bodies of adults were buried with grave goods like pottery and tools.

  • Pot burial: Babies were buried in pots, symbolizing a return to the womb.

  • Partial burial: Selected bones were buried instead of the whole body.

• Grave Goods:

  • Implements and pottery were placed with the dead as part of burial customs.

• Symbolism:

  • Pot burials reflected a cultural belief in rebirth or return to origin.

Implements

• In terms of civilization, neolithic men had achieved suffice advancement. Stone implements of this age are petcked, ground and polished.

• These implements were made from stones other than quartzite stone. The main implements were-calt, hatcher, chisel, pestle, arrow-head, saw etc.

• At the level of neolithic, extensive knowledge of metalurgy did not indicated. Actual neolithic level has been accepted as metalless culture, Where limited use of metal had been seen at neolithic level, the archaeologists named that level Chalco-lithic level (Chaleo = Copper).

Neolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Neolithic Sites are as follows:

Note: in the mid regions of Bolan river valley of Uttar Pradesh and Narmada river valley of Madhya Pradesh, three consecutive stages of lithic age- Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic had been found one by one that is consistently.