The Stone Age/Lithic Age 30,00,000 BC - 1,000 BC (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)

The Stone Age/Lithic Age 30,00,000 BC - 1,000 BC (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)

• About early period of human, some archaeological evidence were found in which stone implements are in great amount. That’s why this period is called Lithic Age i.e, Stone Age.
• Lithic Age/ the Stone Age is divided into three period – Paleolithic Age or old Stone Age, Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age and Neolithic Age or New Stone Age.

I. Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (30,00,000 BC - 10,000 BC)

• The term 'Paleolithic' is the combination of two Greek words, Paleo (old) and lithic (stone). Thus, the meaning of 'Paleolithic Age'is 'the old stone Age'.
• In India, the credit of systematic discovery of Paleolithic archaeological materials goes to Robert Bruce (R.B.) Foote, a geologist of the Geological Survey of India (estd. in 1851), He discovered a Paleolithic implement—a hand Axe- in a gravel pit at Pallavaram in Chingelput district of TamilNadu state in 1863. R.B. Foote is known as 'the father of Pre-historic Archaeology (India).
• In 1982, Arun Sonakia, a geologist in Paleontology Division of the Geological Survey of India, discovered a women'9 skull from Hathnora (a place situated in Narmada river valley, Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh.) This is an important achievement because due to this India is placed on the global map of finding sites of hominid fossils. According to Arun Sonakia, this human skull belonged to the category of Homo Erectus.

Paleolithic Human Life

• Food: The life of Paleolithic people was totally primitive. They largely depended on hunting and nature-given things. Their food was meat, fruit or root. They did not know how to grow grain and vegetables. Their food was not cooked and their clothes not sewn and they had no Extensive geographical Extended to almost everywhere on the distribution (Africa, Asia k earth Europe)houses. Since they were not familiar with use of fire, they ate raw meat (flesh). After a long period, sometime between 2,00,000 BC and 1,00,000 BC, they discovered the fire. The discovery of fire (or innovation of controlled use of fire) was accidental. The striking together of two pieces of quartzite stone produced a spark which, when it touched dry leaves and twigs, burst into a flame. This is the way they learnt to make a fire. Nov/ with the help of fire they were in a position to cook fleshes (of animals) and to keep predator animals away from their shelter or places of rest. Thus the discovery of fire made a significant difference to man and it can be regarded as a major discovery.
• Covering the body (Clothes): Primitive man had little care about clothes. When the weather was warm, little clothing was required. In rainy or winter season they wrapped the skins of the animals as well as the barks of trees and large leaves around their bodies as clothes.
• Dwelling: They had no certain dwelling places and used to live as wanderers. When in need, they used to take shelter in caves, forest, leafy branches of large trees and down the trees. In some caves, like Bhimbetaka etc, remains of paintings are found which is ascertained with the last phase of Paleolithic Age i.e. Upper/Later Paleolithic Age. This clarifies that rock paintings had begun in Upper/Later Paleolithic Age.
• Only Food-consumers: In this primitive age of civilization, the men neither knew animal husbandry and crop-cultivation (agriculture) nor art of pottery making. In this age men were food-gatherers and for their food supply they largely dependend on nature. It means they were consumers only of food stuffs. They couldn't become food-producers yet. There were no specific differences in life-styles of men and wild animals. The men of this age were mainly of Negretorace.
• Disposal of the dead person: They were unaware of funeral- rites of the dead person. They left the dead person in open space without performing any rituals, where the corpses of dead person were consumed by birds and animals, In other words, they placed the dead body in the open space to be eaten away by the birds and animals.

Paleolithic Implements

On the basis of differences in stone-implements, the Paleolithic period is divided into three ages—Lower/Earlier Paleolithic Age, Middle Paleolithic Age and Upper/Later Paleolithic Age

Lower/ Earlier /Early Paleolithic people used quartzite (a type of stone) and other stones to make implements (tools & weapons).

On the basis of implement-type and spread regions, the cultures of lower Paleolithic period are divided into two parte-Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Sohan Culture) and Hand Axe culture (Madrasian culture)

Chopper Chopping Pebble Culture : The implements of their culture were first found in Sohan river valley of west Punjab (Pakistan), that's why this culture is also called 'Sohan culture'-

Pebble: Apiece of rock whose edges had been become smooth & shiny due to friction from flow of water.

Chopper: Unifacial pebble/single-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a single edge)

Chopping: Bifacial pebble/double-edged pebble (made by chipping of a pebble to make a double edge).

Hand Axe Culture: The implements of this culture were first found at Badmadurai & Attirampakkam of Madras, that's why it is also called 'Madrasian Culture'.

Hand Axe : Hand axe was generally made by core and flake method. After breaking the stone into pieces, the larger piece is known as 'core' and the smaller piece as flake The first part of a hand axe was made thick and the front part of a hand axe was made thin. A hand axe was used for cutting and tearing.

Cleaver : The cleaver was used to cleave (split) the barks of trees and skins of animals.

Scraper :The scraper was used to scrap (flay) the barks of trees and skins of animals.

Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic Sites

State wise descriptions of Lower/Earlier/Early Paleolithic sites are as follows.

Middle Paleolithic Implements

The chief stone implement material of this age was flake. The implements made from flakes were Scraper, Burin, Boreretc. Due to preponderance of implements made from flake, the Middle Paleolithic Age is also called 'Flake Culture'.

In the making of these implements the good quality of quartzite (a type of stone) was used. The precious stone like Chert, Zasper, Flint were also used in plenty to make implements.

Middle Paleolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Middle Paleolithic sites are as follows.

Upper/Later Paleolithic Implements

The chief stone implement material of this age were Flake& Blade. The various types of implements were made fromFlake-Blade, in which Burin is the most important. Due to preponderance of implements made from Flake-Blade, the Upper/Later Paleolithic Age is also called 'Flake-Blade Culture'. In the making of these implements, the precious stones like Chert, Zasper, Flint etc were used. In this age, besides stones, bone-homs made implements are also found. These implements were made mainly from long bones and horns of animals. Uptil now the maximum number of bone- hom-made implements were found from Muchchhatala Chintamanugavi cave shelter of Andhra Pradesh.

Upper/Later Paleolithic Sites

Statewise description of Upper/Later Paleolithic sites are as follows.

II. Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age
(9,000 BC - 4,000 BC)   

• The term 'Mesolithic' is the combination of two Greekwords, Meso (Middle) and Lithic (Stone). Thus the meaning of Mesolithic Age is Middle Stone Age.
• Being an intermediate stage between Paleolithic Age &Neolithic Age, this is called Mesolithic Age.
• This was the age of transition, because they neither totally abandoned the characteristics of Paleolithic Age nor totally adopted the features of Neolithic Age.
• In India, the credit for the discovery of Mesolithic archaeological materials goes to John Evans. Mr. Evans excavated Sakkar & Rohri (archaeological sites of Sindh) in 1866.

Mesolithic Human Life

• Taming the Animals : In the lives of Mesolithic men some reforms had come with respect to the lives of previous Paleolithicmen. Although they still dependend largely on hunting, but now they used to begin taming (domesticating) the animals like dog, sheep-goat, cow- ox, buffalo, wild horse etc. The earliest evidence of taming the animals have been found from Adamgarh of Madhya Pradesh and Baghore of Rajasthan.
• Burial of the Dead: These people were aware of the burial process of dead bodies. It is confirmed by the graves that have been found in Sarainahar Rai & Mahdaha of Pratapgarh district (Uttar Pradesh).
• They buried their dead in the grave and placed foodstuff, tools-weapons etc as a grave goods with them. Probably they believed in life after death.
• From some archaeological sites like (Adamgarh etc) the skelton of dog are found alongwith human skelton. It seems dog was the old companion of man. At first man tamed (domesticated) the dog.
• Many sites of Mesolithic age have excavated in which findings of graves are in maximum number. It is a notable fact that the first of all human skeltons begin to available from Mesolithic Age. It is also to be kept in mind that from Paleolithic site Hathnora only human skull is found not the skelton of complete human body as we find in Mesolithic sites.

Mesolithic Implements

• The size of the implements (tools & weapons) of Mesolithic Age is very tiny, therefore these are called Microlith or Pigmy Implements. These are varied in size from 1 to 8 cm. Some of these implements are refined and short form of Upper/Later Paleolithic Scraper, Burin, Borer, Point etc, whereas some of them are new implements like Lunates, Trapezes, Triangles, Arrow head etc of different shapes & sizes.
• In Mesolithic Age Agate, Zasper, Chert, Chalcedony etc. were used as raw materials to make stone implements in place of Quartzite which was the main raw materials of stone implements in Paleolithic Age.
• From some archaeological sites implements made from bone & horn are also found.

Mesolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Mesolithic sites are as follows:

III. Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age
(7,000 BC-1,000 BC)

• The term 'Neolithic' is the combination of two Greek word9, Neo (= New) and Lithic (= Stone). Thus the meaning of Neolithic Age is New Stone Age.
• In India, the credit of the discovery of Neolithic archaeological materials goes to Dr. Primrose- He discovered neolithic implements polished stone knives & arrow-heads from Lingasur of Karnataka in 1842.
• After that in 1860, H.P. Le Mesurier discovered some implements of Neolithic Age from Tons river valley situated in Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh.
• Famous archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) wrote in his book 'Mein Makes Himself' that Neolithic implements had brought a revolution (or a great change) in man's material life. This revolution is named 'Neolithic Revolution' by him.

Neolithic Human Life

• Three chief characteristics of human life of Neolithic Age were—Crop cultivation (Agriculture), Animal husbandry & Fixed abode/habitat.
• Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) is called the earliest known village site of Indian subcontinent.

Agriculture

• The beginning of agriculture was the important discovery of this age. The culture of this age was much developed compared to preceding cultures. Men of this age became food producers as well as food-consumers. They became familiar with crop-cultivation. At which place crop-cultivation began first of all? it is a matter of controversy. Most of the scholars are of the opinion that crop-cultivation began firstly at Mehargarh in Indian subcontinent. The earliest evidence of agriculture was found from Mehargarh which lies in Bolan district of Baluchistan Province.
• The main cultivated crops of Neolithic men were— Wheat, Barley, Paddy, Millets, various types of vegetables etc.            „
• The earliest evidence of Wheat and Barley cultivation was found from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) in the Indian subcontinent.
• The oldest evidence of the paddy cultivation was found from Koldihawa (Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh) in the Indian subcontinent as well as in the whole of the world.

Animal Husbandry

• Although men of lithic age were familiar with animals in the later phase of Mesolithic age, but in this period men's relation with animals became much intimate. In other words, in this age animal husbandry became extended.
• Among the animals domesticated by neolithic men, the main animals were—Dog, Sheep-Goat, Horse etc.
• The main occupation of Neolithic men were—animal hunting, catching fish & taming sheep-goat etc.
• Due to extension of agriculture and animal husbandry, way of life of men changed.
• Their nomadic life (ramping/wondering life) came to an end now and they used to live a life of a fanner tlmt settled in a place.

Clothes

• In this age, men started growing cotton and learnt about clothes.
• The clayey remains of spindle and loom from neolithic sites indicate that neolithic men knew about clothes weaving with the threads of wool, hemp (jute) & cotton. The earliest evidence of cotton in the world was found from Mehargarh (Bolan district, Pakistan). In oilier words, India is the first country in the world whose people leamt the art of spinning and weaving of cloth.

Houses

• Generally neolithic men lived in huts that had been made on the ground by bamboos and smearing of clay, [Exception : Kashmir Valley, Punjab (Pakistan)]
• In Kashmir valley & Punjab (Pakistan), neolithic men dwelled in pits, which is called 'pit dwelling'. They digged the ground in circular or oval shape and made homes to live. To climb down in or climb up from pit, they made niches as clay-stairs made in the wells to climb down or to climb up. Some small holes at short distances had made for embedding the posts on the edges of pits which is called 'post-holes'. With the help of these posts, thatch of grass and straw were laid over pits so that they could protect themselves from wind, sunshine and rain.The archaeological evidences of pit-dwelling have been found from Burzahom & Gufkaral of Kashmir and Saraikhola of Punjab (Pakistan).

Pottery

• In 4,000 BC neolithic men invented Potter's wheel/ Wheel, which is believed to be a very important invention of technological advancement of men.
• Due to this invention, the pottery (earthenware vessels) that were made from potter's wheel had become possible, which were made by hand in the previous time. With the prevalance of wheel, the process of painting on the surface of pottery became popular.

Burial Process

• North India: In North India there were two types of burial process—complete and partial burial process. In complete burial process the circular pit was digged first and after that in that pit the dead person was laid flat on the back. In partial burial process, selected bones of the dead person were buried in the grave that was dug in the ground, The custom of burial of the pet animal dog with his master was practises at Burzahom and Gufkaral of Kashmir. The evidence of burial of the pet animal goat with his master was practises at Mehargarh of Baluchistan (Pakistan). Probably these animals (dog, goat etc) were placed to be eaten by the dead person in the next world.
• South India: In south India, there were two types of burial process-complete/extensive and partial burial process. Under complete /extensive burial process, the corpse of old male-female were buried in the graves that was dug in the ground. In the grave pottery, implements etc were placed as grave goods along with the corpse. Corpses of small babies were completely buried after placing them into pot (pot-burials), Pot- burial is the symbol of return to womb. Under partialburled process selected bones of the dead person were burled in the graves.

Implements

• In terms of civilization, neolithic men had achieved suffice advancement. Stone implements of this age are petcked, ground and polished.
• These implements were made from stones other than quartzite stone. The main implements were-calt, hatcher, chisel, pestle, arrow-head, saw etc.
• At the level of neolithic, extensive knowledge of metalurgy did not indicated. Actual neolithic level has been accepted as metalless culture, Where limited use of metal had been seen at neolithic level, the archaeologists named that level Chalco-lithic level (Chaleo = Copper).

Neolithic Sites

Statewise descriptions of Neolithic Sites are as follows:

Note: in the mid regions of Bolan river valley of Uttar Pradesh and Narmada river valley of Madhya Pradesh, three consecutive stages of lithic age- Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic had been found one by one that is consistently.